Mutations in the carboxyl-terminal SEC24 binding motif of the serotonin transporter impair folding of the transporter.

The serotonin transporter (SERT) is a member of the SLC6 family of solute carriers. SERT plays a crucial role in synaptic neurotransmission by retrieving released serotonin. The intracellular carboxyl terminus of various neurotransmitter transporters has been shown to be important for the correct delivery of SLC6 family members to the cell surface. Here we studied the importance of the C terminus in trafficking and folding of human SERT. Serial truncations followed by mutagenesis identified sequence spots (PG(601,602), RII(607-609)) within the C terminus relevant for export of SERT from the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). RI(607,608) is homologous to the RL-motif that in other SLC6 family members provides a docking site for the COPII component Sec24D. The primary defect resulting from mutation at PG(601,602) and RI(607,608) was impaired folding, because mutated transporters failed to bind the inhibitor [(3)H]imipramine. In contrast, when retained in the ER (e.g. by dominant negative Sar1) the wild type transporter bound [(3)H]imipramine with an affinity comparable to that of the surface-expressed transporter. SERT-RI(607,608)AA and SERT-RII(607-609)AAA were partially rescued by treatment of cells with the nonspecific chemical chaperone DMSO or the specific pharmacochaperone ibogaine (which binds to the inward facing conformation of SERT) but not by other classes of ligands (inhibitors, substrates, amphetamines). These observations (i) demonstrate an hitherto unappreciated role of the C terminus in the folding of SERT, (ii) indicates that the folding trajectory proceeds via an inward facing intermediate, and (iii) suggest a model where the RI-motif plays a crucial role in preventing premature Sec24-recruitment and export of incorrectly folded transporters.

Dopamine D2-receptor activation elicits akinesia, rigidity, catalepsy, and tremor in mice expressing hypersensitive {alpha}4 nicotinic receptors via a cholinergic-dependent mechanism.

Recent studies suggest that high-affinity neuronal nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) containing alpha4 and beta2 subunits (alpha4beta2*) functionally interact with G-protein-coupled dopamine (DA) D(2) receptors in basal ganglia. We hypothesized that if a functional interaction between these receptors exists, then mice expressing an M2 point mutation (Leu9'Ala) rendering alpha4 nAChRs hypersensitive to ACh may exhibit altered sensitivity to a D(2)-receptor agonist. When challenged with the D(2)R agonist, quinpirole (0.5-10 mg/kg), Leu9'Ala mice, but not wild-type (WT) littermates, developed severe, reversible motor impairment characterized by rigidity, catalepsy, akinesia, and tremor. While striatal DA tissue content, baseline release, and quinpirole-induced DA depletion did not differ between Leu9'Ala and WT mice, quinpirole dramatically increased activity of cholinergic striatal interneurons only in mutant animals, as measured by increased c-Fos expression in choline acetyltransferase (ChAT)-positive interneurons. Highlighting the importance of the cholinergic system in this mouse model, inhibiting the effects of ACh by blocking muscarinic receptors, or by selectively activating hypersensitive nAChRs with nicotine, rescued motor symptoms. This novel mouse model mimics the imbalance between striatal DA/ACh function associated with severe motor impairment in disorders such as Parkinson's disease, and the data suggest that a D(2)R-alpha4*-nAChR functional interaction regulates cholinergic interneuron activity.

Subcellular trafficking, pentameric assembly, and subunit stoichiometry of neuronal nicotinic acetylcholine receptors containing fluorescently labeled alpha6 and beta3 subunits.

Neuronal nicotinic acetylcholine (ACh) receptors are ligand-gated, cation-selective ion channels. Nicotinic receptors containing alpha4, alpha6, beta2, and beta3 subunits are expressed in midbrain dopaminergic neurons, and they are implicated in the response to smoked nicotine. Here, we have studied the cell biological and biophysical properties of receptors containing alpha6 and beta3 subunits by using fluorescent proteins fused within the M3-M4 intracellular loop. Receptors containing fluorescently tagged beta3 subunits were fully functional compared with receptors with untagged beta3 subunits. We find that beta3- and alpha6-containing receptors are highly expressed in neurons and that they colocalize with coexpressed, fluorescent alpha4 and beta2 subunits in neuronal soma and dendrites. Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET) reveals efficient, specific assembly of beta3 and alpha6 into nicotinic receptor pentamers of various subunit compositions. Using FRET, we demonstrate directly that only a single beta3 subunit is incorporated into nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) containing this subunit, whereas multiple subunit stoichiometries exist for alpha4- and alpha6-containing receptors. Finally, we demonstrate that nicotinic ACh receptors are localized in distinct microdomains at or near the plasma membrane using total internal reflection fluorescence (TIRF) microscopy. We suggest that neurons contain large, intracellular pools of assembled, functional nicotinic receptors, which may provide them with the ability to rapidly up-regulate nicotinic responses to endogenous ligands such as ACh, or to exogenous agents such as nicotine. Furthermore, this report is the first to directly measure nAChR subunit stoichiometry using FRET and plasma membrane localization of alpha6- and beta3-containing receptors using TIRF.

Antibodies directed against Lewis-Y antigen inhibit signaling of Lewis-Y modified ErbB receptors.

The majority of cancer cells derived from epithelial tissue express Lewis-Y (LeY) type difucosylated oligosaccharides on their plasma membrane. This results in the modification of cell surface receptors by the LeY antigen. We used the epidermal growth factor (EGF) receptor family members ErbB1 and ErbB2 as model systems to investigate whether the sugar moiety can be exploited to block signaling by growth factor receptors in human tumor cells (i.e., SKBR-3 and A431, derived from a breast cancer and a vulval carcinoma, respectively). The monoclonal anti-LeY antibody ABL364 and its humanized version IGN311 immunoprecipitated ErbB1 and ErbB2 from detergent lysates of A431 and SKBR-3, respectively. ABL364 and IGN311 blocked EGF- and heregulin-stimulated phosphorylation of mitogen-activated protein kinase [MAPK = extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2] in SKBR-3 and A431 cells. The effect was comparable in magnitude with that of trastuzumab (Herceptin) and apparently noncompetitive with respect to EGF. Stimulation of MAPK by ErbB was dynamin dependent and contingent on receptor internalization. ABL364 and IGN311 changed the intracellular localization of fluorescent EGF-containing endosomes and accelerated recycling of intracellular [(125)I]EGF to the plasma membrane. Taken together, these observations show that antibodies directed against carbohydrate side chains of ErbB receptors are capable of inhibiting ErbB-mediated signaling. The ability of these antibodies to reroute receptor trafficking provides a mechanistic explanation for their inhibitory action.

Sympathoexcitation by bradykinin involves Ca2+-independent protein kinase C.

Bradykinin has long been known to excite sympathetic neurons via B(2) receptors, and this action is believed to be mediated by an inhibition of M-currents via phospholipase C and inositol trisphosphate-dependent increases in intracellular Ca(2+). In primary cultures of rat superior cervical ganglion neurons, bradykinin caused an accumulation of inositol trisphosphate, an inhibition of M-currents, and a stimulation of action potential-mediated transmitter release. Blockade of inositol trisphosphate-dependent signaling cascades failed to affect the bradykinin-induced release of noradrenaline, but prevented the peptide-induced inhibition of M-currents. In contrast, inhibition or downregulation of protein kinase C reduced the stimulation of transmitter release, but not the inhibition of M-currents, by bradykinin. In cultures of superior cervical ganglia, classical (alpha, betaI, betaII), novel (delta, epsilon), and atypical (zeta) protein kinase C isozymes were detected by immunoblotting. Bradykinin induced a translocation of Ca(2+)-independent protein kinase C isoforms (delta and epsilon) from the cytosol to the membrane of the neurons, but left the cellular distribution of other isoforms unchanged. This activation of Ca(2+)-independent protein kinase C enzymes was prevented by a phospholipase C inhibitor. The bradykinin-dependent stimulation of noradrenaline release was reduced by inhibitors of classical and novel protein kinase C isozymes, but not by an inhibitor selective for Ca(2+)-dependent isoforms. These results demonstrate that bradykinin B(2) receptors are linked to phospholipase C to simultaneously activate two signaling pathways: one mediates an inositol trisphosphate- and Ca(2+)-dependent inhibition of M-currents, the other one leads to an excitation of sympathetic neurons independently of changes in M-currents through an activation of Ca(2+)-insensitive protein kinase C.

The human D2 dopamine receptor synergizes with the A2A adenosine receptor to stimulate adenylyl cyclase in PC12 cells.

The adenosine A(2A) receptor and the dopamine D(2) receptor are prototypically coupled to G(s) and G(i)/G(o), respectively. In striatal intermediate spiny neurons, these receptors are colocalized in dendritic spines and act as mutual antagonists. This antagonism has been proposed to occur at the level of the receptors or of receptor-G protein coupling. We tested this model in PC12 cells which endogenously express A(2A) receptors. The human D(2) receptor was introduced into PC12 cells by stable transfection. A(2A)-agonist-mediated inhibition of D(2) agonist binding was absent in PC12 cell membranes but present in HEK293 cells transfected as a control. However, in the resulting PC12 cell lines, the action of the D(2) agonist quinpirole depended on the expression level of the D(2) receptor: at low and high receptor levels, the A(2A)-agonist-induced elevation of cAMP was enhanced and inhibited, respectively. Forskolin-stimulated cAMP formation was invariably inhibited by quinpirole. The effects of quinpirole were abolished by pretreatment with pertussis toxin. A(2A)-receptor-mediated cAMP formation was inhibited by other G(i)/G(o)-coupled receptors that were either endogenously present (P(2y12)-like receptor for ADP) or stably expressed after transfection (A(1) adenosine, metabotropic glutamate receptor-7A). Similarly, voltage activated Ca(2+) channels were inhibited by the endogenous P(2Y) receptor and by the heterologously expressed A(1) receptor but not by the D(2) receptor. These data indicate functional segregation of signaling components. Our observations are thus compatible with the proposed model that D(2) and A(2A) receptors are closely associated, but they highlight the fact that this interaction can also support synergism.

Removal of the carboxy terminus of the A2A-adenosine receptor blunts constitutive activity: differential effect on cAMP accumulation and MAP kinase stimulation.

The A(2A)-adenosine receptor has an extended carboxy terminus (approximately 120 amino acids), the role of which is poorly defined. In human endothelial cells and in HEK293 cells, the A(2A)-receptor controls at least two independent signalling pathways, i.e. increased cyclic adenosine 3',5'-monophosphate (cAMP) formation via its cognate G protein G(s) and increased phosphorylation of mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAP kinase) by recruiting p21(ras). In order to address the role of the carboxy terminus in signal transfer, we generated HEK293 cells that stably expressed the full-length (wt) receptor and truncated versions [A(2A)-R(1-360) and A(2A)-R(1-311)] at comparable levels (approximately 0.5 pmol/mg) in the plasma membrane. The effects of truncation were divergent with respect to the two effectors regulated by the receptor. In intact cells carrying A(2A)-R(wt) and A(2A)-R(1-360), cAMP accumulation was more potently activated by an A(2A)-agonist than in cells expressing A(2A)-R(1-311). Similarly, A(2A)-R(wt) and A(2A)-R(1-360)--but not A(2A)-R(1-311)--caused constitutive (=agonist-independent) elevation of cAMP which was reversed by the addition of A(2A)-antagonists. In membranes prepared from these cells, however, the three receptors displayed no constitutive activity in stimulating adenylyl cyclase and they did not differ in apparent agonist affinity. Truncation of the A(2A)-receptor did also not decrease the potency of an A(2A)-agonist to stimulate MAP kinase in intact cells. We conclude that the carboxy terminus defines both (a) the level of constitutive activity, i.e. the equilibrium R<--> R*, in intact cells only, indicating a role for a component that is lost upon cell lysis, and (b) the efficiency of signal transfer in alternative pathways.

Amphetamines take two to tango: an oligomer-based counter-transport model of neurotransmitter transport explores the amphetamine action.

Amphetamine congeners [e.g., 3,4-methylenedioxymetamphetamine (MDMA), or "ecstasy"] are substrates for monoamine transporters (i.e., the transporters for serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine); however, their in vivo-action relies on their ability to promote monoamine efflux. The mechanistic basis for this counter transport remains enigmatic. We tested the hypothesis that outward transport is contingent on the oligomeric nature of neurotransmitter transporters by creating a concatemer of the serotonin transporter and the amphetamine-resistant GABA transporter. In cells expressing the concatemer, amphetamine analogs promoted GABA efflux and blunted GABA influx. In contrast, the natural substrates serotonin and GABA only cause mutual inhibition of influx via the other transporter moiety in the concatemer. GABA efflux through the concatemer that was promoted by amphetamine analogs was blocked by the protein kinase C inhibitors GF109203X (bisindoylmaleimide I) and Go6983 (2-[1-(3-dimethylaminopropyl)-5-methoxyindol-3-yl]-3-(1H-indol-3-yl)maleimide). Thus, based on our observations, we propose that, in the presence of amphetamine analogs, monoamine transporters operate as counter-transporters; influx and efflux occur through separate but coupled moieties. Influx and efflux are coupled via changes in the ionic gradients, but these do not suffice to account for the action of amphetamines; the activity of a protein kinase C isoform provides a second stimulus that primes the inward facing conformation for outward transport.

Identification of an additional interaction domain in transmembrane domains 11 and 12 that supports oligomer formation in the human serotonin transporter.

Na+/Cl--dependent neurotransmitter transporters form constitutive oligomers. The topological arrangement is not known, but a leucine heptad repeat in transmembrane domain (TM) 2 and a glycophorin-like motif in TM6 have been proposed to stabilize the oligomer. To determine the topology, we generated versions of the human serotonin transporter (hSERT) that carried cyan or yellow fluorescent proteins at their amino and/or carboxyl terminus. Appropriate pairs were coexpressed to measure fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET). Donor photobleaching FRET microscopy was employed to deduce the following arrangement: within the monomer, the amino and carboxyl termini are in close vicinity. In addition, in the oligomer, the carboxyl termini are closer to each other than the amino termini. Hence, a separate interaction domain (i.e. distinct from TM2 and TM6) must reside in the carboxyl-terminal half of hSERT. This was confirmed by expressing the amino- and carboxyl-terminal halves of hSERT. These were retained intracellularly; they also retained the coexpressed full-length transporter by forming export-deficient oligomers and, when cotransfected in all possible combinations, supported FRET. Hence, both the carboxyl and amino termini contain elements that drive oligomerization. By employing fragments comprising two neighboring TM helices, we unequivocally identified TM11/12 as a new contact site by donor photobleaching FRET and beta-lactamase protein fragment complementation assay. TM1/2 was also found to self-associate. Thus, oligomerization of hSERT involves at least two discontinuous interfaces. The currently identified interaction sites drive homophilic interactions. This is consistent with assembly of SERT oligomers in an array-like structure containing multimers of dimers.

Fiber type conversion alters inactivation of voltage-dependent sodium currents in murine C2C12 skeletal muscle cells.

Each skeletal muscle of the body contains a unique composition of "fast" and "slow" muscle fibers, each of which is specialized for certain challenges. This composition is not static, and the muscle fibers are capable of adapting their molecular composition by altered gene expression (i.e., fiber type conversion). Whereas changes in the expression of contractile proteins and metabolic enzymes in the course of fiber type conversion are well described, little is known about possible adaptations in the electrophysiological properties of skeletal muscle cells. Such adaptations may involve changes in the expression and/or function of ion channels. In this study, we investigated the effects of fast-to-slow fiber type conversion on currents via voltage-gated Na+ channels in the C(2)C(12) murine skeletal muscle cell line. Prolonged treatment of cells with 25 nM of the Ca2+ ionophore A-23187 caused a significant shift in myosin heavy chain isoform expression from the fast toward the slow isoform, indicating fast-to-slow fiber type conversion. Moreover, Na+ current inactivation was significantly altered. Slow inactivation less strongly inhibited the Na+ currents of fast-to-slow fiber type-converted cells. Compared with control cells, the Na+ currents of converted cells were more resistant to block by tetrodotoxin, suggesting enhanced relative expression of the cardiac Na+ channel isoform Na(v)1.5 compared with the skeletal muscle isoform Na(v)1.4. These results imply that fast-to-slow fiber type conversion of skeletal muscle cells involves functional adaptation of their electrophysiological properties.