Physicians' and non-physicians' views about provision of medical abortion by nurses and AYUSH physicians in Maharashtra and Bihar, India.

There is only limited evidence on whether certified and uncertified health care providers in India support reforming the Medical Termination of Pregnancy (MTP) Act to expand the abortion provider base to allow trained nurses and AYUSH physicians (who are trained in Indian systems of medicine) to provide medical abortion. To explore their views, we conducted a survey of 1,200 physicians and other health care providers in Maharashtra and Bihar states and in-depth interviews with 34 of them who had used medical abortion in their practices. Findings indicate that obstetrician-gynaecologists and other allopathic physicians were less supportive than non-physicians of nurses and AYUSH physicians providing early medical abortion. The physicians did not think that these providers would be able to assess women's eligibility for medical abortion correctly. In contrast, the majority of non-physicians found task shifting of medical abortion provision to trained nurses and AYUSH physicians acceptable, and they were confident that these providers would be able to provide medical abortion as safely and effectively as trained physicians. Assuming the reforms are passed, efforts will need to be made by government and medical professional bodies to train these new providers to undertake this role, prepare the health infrastructure to include them, and create an environment, including among physicians, that is conducive to enabling non-physicians to provide medical abortion.

Policy change to improve access to safe abortion care in federal Nepal.

In Nepal's constitution, safe abortion care is recognized as an essential component of a comprehensive approach to fulfill individuals' sexual and reproductive health and rights. In the current context of transition to a three-level governance (federal, provincial, and local), there are opportunities to accelerate decentralization and devolution of decision-making power, increase access to and coverage of safe abortion services, and improve health outcomes. This article documents the processes and results of the policy change undertaken by the Ministry of Health and Population in collaboration with development partners to decentralize the approval process of safe abortion sites and providers with the objective to increase access to and coverage of safe abortion services. With the decentralization of certification, the approval process for safe abortion service sites and providers has become simpler, less time consuming, and less expensive by reducing cost of traveling to Kathmandu or approaching authorities at the federal level. This has resulted in expanding safe abortion services across the country including remote areas with marginalized populations. Evidence-based advocacy enabled policy change for decentralization of the approval process. Collaboration among stakeholders has been vital for implementing the policy change, including issuing directives from the federal to provincial levels and capacity strengthening of provincial level officials in understanding the requirements for approval of sites and providers.

Unsuccessful prior attempts to terminate pregnancy among women seeking first trimester abortion at registered facilities in Bihar and Jharkhand, India.

Many abortion seekers in India attempt to induce abortion on their own, by accessing oral medication/preparations from a chemist without a prescription or from an unauthorized provider, and present at registered facilities if these attempts fail. However, little is known about those whose efforts fail or the ways in which programmes and policies may address the needs of such women. This paper explores the experiences of women whose efforts failed, including their socio-demographic profile, the preparations they used, and the extent to which they experienced serious complications, delayed seeking care from an authorized provider, or delayed abortion until the second trimester of pregnancy. Data come from a larger study assessing the feasibility of the provision of medical abortion by non-physicians; a total of 3394 women who sought medical abortion from selected clinical settings in Bihar and Jharkhand between 2008 and 2010 constitute the sample. Prior to visiting the clinic, nearly a third of these women (31%) had made at least one unsuccessful attempt to terminate the unwanted pregnancy by using a range of oral medications/preparations available over-the-counter in medical shops. Logistic regression analysis suggests that educated women (OR 1.6-1.7), those from urban areas (OR 6.2) and those from Bihar (OR 1.6) were significantly more likely than women with no education, rural women and those from Jharkhand to have used such medication. Also notable is that the average gestational age of women who had made a previous attempt to terminate their pregnancy was almost identical to that of women who had not done so when they presented at the registered facility. These findings may inform policies and programmes that seek to identify and reduce the potential risks associated with unauthorized abortion-seeking practices, and highlight the need to fully inform women, chemists and providers about oral medications, what works and what does not, and how effective medication must be taken.

Experiences of unmarried young abortion-seekers in Bihar and Jharkhand, India.

While several studies have documented the prevalence of unprotected pre-marital sex among young people in India, little work has explored one of its likely consequences, unintended pregnancy and abortion. This paper examines the experiences of 26 unmarried young abortion-seekers (aged 15-24) interviewed in depth as part of a larger study of unmarried abortion-seekers at clinics run by an NGO in Bihar and Jharkhand. Findings reveal that recognition of the unintended pregnancy was delayed for many and many who suspected so further delayed acknowledging it. Once recognised, most confided in the partner and, for the most part, partners were supportive; a significant minority, including those who had experienced forced sex, did not have partner support and delayed the abortion until the second trimester of pregnancy. Family support was absent in most cases; where provided, it was largely to protect the family reputation. Finally, unsuccessful attempts to terminate the pregnancy were made by several young women, often with the help of partners or family member. Findings call for programmes for young women and men, their potential partners, parents and families and the health system that will collectively enable unmarried young women to obtain safe abortions in a supportive environment.

Experience seeking abortion among unmarried young women in Bihar and Jharkhand, India: delays and disadvantages.

Studies suggest that the experiences of unmarried young women seeking abortion in India differ from those of their married counterparts, but the evidence is limited. Research was undertaken among nulliparous young women aged 15-24 who had abortions at the clinics of a leading NGO in Bihar and Jharkhand. Over a 14-month period in 2007-08, 246 married and 549 unmarried young abortion seekers were surveyed and 26 who were unmarried were interviewed in depth. Those who were unmarried were far more likely to report non-consensual sexual relations. As many as 25% of unmarried young women, compared to only 9% of married young women, had had a second trimester abortion. The unmarried were far more likely to report non-consensual sexual relations leading to pregnancy. They were also more likely to report such obstacles to timely abortion as failure to recognise the pregnancy promptly, exclusion from abortion-related decision-making, seeking confidentiality as paramount in selection of abortion facility, unsuccessful previous attempts to terminate the pregnancy, and lack of partner support. After controlling for background factors, findings suggest that unmarried young women who also experienced these obstacles were, compared to married young women, most likely to experience second trimester abortion. Programmes need to take steps to improve access to safe and timely abortion for unmarried young women.

Provision of medical methods of abortion in facilities in India in 2015: A six state comparison.

Medical methods of abortion, MMA, has been legal in India since 2002. Guidelines stipulate that it should be administered by a provider or acquired via prescription. 1.2 million women having abortions in India use MMA acquired from health facilities [Singh, S., Shekhar, C., Acharya, R., Moore, A. M., Stillman, M., Pradhan, M. R., … Browne, A. (2018). The incidence of abortion and unintended pregnancy in India, 2015. The Lancet Global Health, 6(1), e111-e120. doi: 10.1016/S2214-109X(17)30453-9 ]. We undertook a study of abortion in Assam, Bihar, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Uttar Pradesh in 2015 to better understand under what conditions and how MMA is being administered in facilities. The majority of facilities that provide MMA are in the private sector and located in urban areas. Most facilities offer MMA both at the facility and as a prescription, although some facilities only offer MMA as a prescription. A high proportion of facilities report that women typically take the medication at home. (Re)training providers in MMA protocols and counselling, increasing the number of facilities offering MMA, and stocking of the drugs would help improve women's access to MMA and the information they need to be able to use this method safely. Key Messages: In the six states in our sample, Assam, Bihar, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Uttar Pradesh, 8% of abortions in 2015 were done using medical methods of abortion (MMA) acquired from health facilities. The majority of facilities that provide MMA in the six states are in the private sector and are located in urban areas. Health facilities in Madhya Pradesh and Tamil Nadu are comparatively better in their provision of MMA with Assam, Bihar, Gujarat and Uttar Pradesh demonstrating poorer provision of MMA. There are many opportunities for improvement in the practices of MMA provision through improved training of providers, accessibility to the medications and better support of women using MMA.

The incidence of abortion and unintended pregnancy in India, 2015.

BACKGROUND: Reliable information on the incidence of induced abortion in India is lacking. Official statistics and national surveys provide incomplete coverage. Since the early 2000s, medication abortion has become increasingly available, improving the way women obtain abortions. The aim of this study was to estimate the national incidence of abortion and unintended pregnancy for 2015. METHODS: National abortion incidence was estimated through three separate components: abortions (medication and surgical) in facilities (including private sector, public sector, and non-governmental organisations [NGOs]); medication abortions outside facilities; and abortions outside of facilities and with methods other than medication abortion. Facility-based abortions were estimated from the 2015 Health Facilities Survey of 4001 public and private health facilities in six Indian states (Assam, Bihar, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, and Uttar Pradesh) and from NGO clinic data. National medication abortion drug sales and distribution data were obtained from IMS Health and six principal NGOs (DKT International, Marie Stopes International, Population Services International, World Health Partners, Parivar Seva Santha, and Janani). We estimated the total number of abortions that are not medication abortions and are not obtained in a health facility setting through an indirect technique based on findings from community-based study findings in two states in 2009, with adjustments to account for the rapid increase in use of medication abortion since 2009. The total number of women of reproductive age and livebirth data were obtained from UN population data, and the proportion of births from unplanned pregnancies and data on contraceptive use and need were obtained from the 2015-16 National Family Health Survey-4. FINDINGS: We estimate that 15·6 million abortions (14·1 million-17·3 million) occurred in India in 2015. The abortion rate was 47·0 abortions (42·2-52·1) per 1000 women aged 15-49 years. 3·4 million abortions (22%) were obtained in health facilities, 11·5 million (73%) abortions were medication abortions done outside of health facilities, and 0·8 million (5%) abortions were done outside of health facilities using methods other than medication abortion. Overall, 12·7 million (81%) abortions were medication abortions, 2·2 million (14%) abortions were surgical, and 0·8 million (5%) abortions were done through other methods that were probably unsafe. We estimated 48·1 million pregnancies, a rate of 144·7 pregnancies per 1000 women aged 15-49 years, and a rate of 70·1 unintended pregnancies per 1000 women aged 15-49 years. Abortions accounted for one third of all pregnancies, and nearly half of pregnancies were unintended. INTERPRETATION: Health facilities can have a greater role in abortion service provision and provide quality care, including post-abortion contraception. Interventions are needed to expand access to abortion services through better equipping existing facilities, ensuring adequate and continuous supplies of medication abortion drugs, and by increasing the number of trained providers. In view of how many women rely on self-administration of medication abortion drugs, interventions are needed to provide women with accurate information on these drugs and follow-up care when needed. Research is needed to test interventions that improve knowledge and practice in providing medication abortion, and the Indian Government at the national and state level needs to prioritise improving policies and practice to increase access to comprehensive abortion care and quality contraceptive services that prevent unintended pregnancy. FUNDING: Government of UK Department for International Development (until 2015), the David and Lucile Packard Foundation, the John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation, and the Ford Foundation.

Increasing access to safe abortion services in rural India: experiences with medical abortion in a primary health center.

INTRODUCTION: To increase access to safe abortion in rural India, the feasibility and acceptability of mifepristone-misoprostol abortion was assessed in a typical government run primary health center (PHC) in Nagpur district, Maharashtra State, that does not offer surgical abortion services and must refer off-site for emergency and backup services. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Consenting pregnant women (n=149) with

Knowledge, attitudes, and practices of certified providers of medical abortion: evidence from Bihar and Maharashtra, India.

OBJECTIVE: To explore Indian abortion providers' knowledge of medical abortion (MA), their personal experiences and practices of providing medical abortion, and their attitudes toward providing MA to eligible women who were poor, uneducated, and/or from rural areas. METHODS: In selected districts of India's Bihar and Maharashtra states, interviews were conducted with 270 physicians who were certified as abortion providers, using a structured questionnaire. RESULTS: The providers' knowledge of the gestational limit, the recommended doses of mifepristone and misoprostol, and other aspects of the approved protocol was far from universal. Only about two-thirds of these physicians authorized to perform MA actually performed it. Although they all counseled women about the procedure before they took mifepristone, the matters discussed were often limited to pain management and possible complications. Contraception was usually not discussed until the follow-up visit. Most providers thus missed the opportunity to provide sustained counseling to their MA patients, and did not counsel them about the need to protect themselves in the 2 weeks following the administration of mifepristone. Moreover, many providers were reluctant to offer MA to poor, uneducated, and/or rural women. CONCLUSIONS: These findings shed light on the need to raise awareness and dispel misgivings about MA among certified providers of abortion services. By placing emphasis on the method's safety and effectiveness, additional training to these would increase their confidence about offering MA to eligible women.

Factors associated with second trimester abortion in rural Maharashtra and Rajasthan, India.

Many married women in India experience abortion in their second trimester of pregnancy. While there is an impression that second trimester abortions are now overwhelmingly used for sex selection, little is known about the extent to which second trimester abortions are indeed associated with son preference and sex selection motives, relative to other factors. Using data from a community-based study in rural Maharashtra and Rajasthan, research highlights the role of limited access in explaining second trimester abortion. While women with a single child who was a daughter were indeed more likely than other women to have terminated a pregnancy carrying a female foetus in the second trimester, more strikingly, exclusion from abortion-related decision-making, unsuccessful prior attempts to terminate the pregnancy, and distance from the facility in which their abortion was performed, were significantly associated with second trimester abortion, even after controlling for confounding factors. The study calls for greater efficiency in implementing the PCPNDT Act and addressing deep-rooted son preference. At the same time, findings that poverty and limited access to facilities are as, if not more, important drivers of second trimester abortion, highlight the need to meet commitments to ensure accessible abortion facilities for poor rural women.

Adoption and continuation of contraception following medical or surgical abortion in Bihar and Jharkhand, India.

OBJECTIVE: This study was carried out to explore whether the rates of postabortion adoption of a contraceptive method, and continuation of contraception over 6 months, differ among women undergoing medical abortion (MA) or surgical abortion by manual vacuum aspiration (MVA). METHODS: The study was conducted in Bihar and Jharkhand, 2 of the least-developed states of India. The analysis focused on 679 married women who were followed up 6 months after they underwent MA (n=308) or MVA (n=371) at clinics run by Janani, a nonprofit organization. RESULTS: The rates of adoption and continuation of contraception were similar in the 2 groups, although with some notable distinctions in the timing of adoption of contraception and the method of contraception adopted. While the women who underwent MA were significantly less likely to adopt contraception in the month following abortion (58% vs 86%), this difference had narrowed considerably by the end of the second month (82% vs 91%); and by the end of the sixth month (89% vs 94%), respectively. There were no significant differences between the MA and the MVA groups with respect to the continuation of reversible contraception. CONCLUSIONS: The findings indicate that, in a setting that offers comprehensive counseling and a range of contraceptive methods, and where adoption of contraception is voluntary, a large majority of women will adopt and continue to use a method of contraception after an abortion even in these less developed parts of India.

Feasibility of expanding the medication abortion provider base in India to include ayurvedic physicians and nurses.

CONTEXT: The availability of trained abortion providers is limited in India. Allowing ayurvedic physicians and nurses to perform medication abortions may improve women's access to the procedure, but it is unclear whether these clinicians can provide these services safely and effectively. METHODS: Allopathic physicians, ayurvedic physicians and nurses (10 of each), none of whom had experience in abortion provision, were trained to perform medication abortions. In 2008-2010, these providers performed medication abortions in five clinics in Bihar and Jharkhand for 1,225 women with a pregnancy of up to eight weeks' gestation. A two-sided equivalence design was used to test whether providers' assessments of client eligibility and completeness of abortion matched those of an experienced physician "verifier," and whether medication abortions performed by nurses and ayurvedic physicians were as safe and effective as those done by allopathic physicians. RESULTS: Failure rates were low (5-6%), and those for nurses and ayurvedic physicians were statistically equivalent to those for allopathic physicians. Provider assessments of client eligibility and completeness of abortion differed from those of the verifier in only a small proportion of cases (3-4% for eligibility and 4-5% for completeness); these proportions, and rates of loss to follow-up, were statistically equivalent among provider types. No serious complications were observed, and services by all three groups of providers were acceptable to women. CONCLUSION: Findings support amending existing laws to improve women's access to medication abortion by expanding the provider base to include ayurvedic physicians and nurses.

Can nurses perform manual vacuum aspiration (MVA) as safely and effectively as physicians? Evidence from India.

BACKGROUND: Although legal, access to safe abortion remains limited in India. Given positive experiences of task-shifting from other developing countries, there is a need to explore the feasibility of expanding the manual vacuum aspiration (MVA) provider base to include nurses in India. STUDY DESIGN: A prospective, two-sided equivalence study was undertaken in five facilities of a non-government organisation in Bihar and Jharkhand to explore whether efficacy and safety rates associated with MVA provided by newly trained nurses were equivalent to those provided by physicians. Eight hundred and ninety-seven consenting women with gestation ages of ≤ 10 weeks were recruited. RESULTS: Nurses were as skilled as physicians in assessing gestation age and completed abortion status, performing MVA and obtaining patient compliance. Overall failure and complication rates were low and equivalent between the two provider types, and both provider types were equally acceptable to women who underwent the procedure (98%). CONCLUSION: Findings of the study make a compelling case for amending existing laws to expand the MVA provider base in order to increase access to safe abortion in India.

Abortion experiences of unmarried young women in India: evidence from a facility-based study in Bihar and Jharkhand.

CONTEXT: Little is known about the experiences of unmarried young women in India who seek to terminate an unintended pregnancy. METHODS: A survey was conducted among 549 unmarried women aged 15-24 who had obtained an abortion in 2007-2008 at one of 16 clinics run by the nongovernmental organization Janani in the states of Bihar and Jharkhand. Differences in background characteristics, and in obstacles to obtaining an abortion, between those who had an abortion in the first trimester and those who did so in the second trimester were compared, and logistic regression analysis identified associations between these factors and obtaining a second-trimester abortion. RESULTS: Eighty-three percent of women realized they were pregnant within the first two months of their pregnancy, and 91% within the first trimester. Eighty-four percent decided before the end of the first trimester to have an abortion, but only 75% obtained one in this period. One in six participants said that pregnancy had resulted from a nonconsensual sexual encounter, and such reports were more frequent among those who obtained a second-trimester abortion. Women who were older or who had more schooling had a decreased likelihood of having a second-trimester abortion (odds ratios, 0.9 each), whereas those who lived in rural areas, those who did not receive full support from their partners and those who reported a forced encounter had an increased likelihood of having a late abortion (2.3-4.1). CONCLUSIONS: Sex education programs that highlight the importance of recognizing a pregnancy early in gestation, and of obtaining an early abortion if a pregnancy is unwanted, are needed for unmarried young women and men.