Time-dependent effect of oral morphine consumption on the development of cytotrophoblast and syncytiotrophoblast cells of the placental layers during the three different periods of pregnancy in Wistar rats.

UNLABELLED: Previous studies have shown that morphine abuse during pregnancy cancause a delay in the development of the placenta and embryo and also bring about birth defects. The present study investigates the effect of the duration of maternal morphine consumption during pregnancy, as well as the impacts of morphine abuse on the development of placental layers during the three different periods of pregnancy in Wistar rats. MATERIALS AND METHODOLOGY: Female Wistar rats have been used in the present study. Experimental groups received morphine (0.05 mg/mL of drinking water) after one night of coupling with male rats for mating. On 9th, 10th, and 14th days of pregnancy, pregnant animals were killed, and placentas were removed and fixed. The cells of the placentas layers were calculated by light microscope and MOTIC and SPSS software. RESULTS: The maternal surface thickness of the placenta was significantly increased, whereasthe fetal surface thickness of placenta was significantly decreased with morphine consumption with a time-dependent manner in experimental groups, compared to control groups. Moreover, the number of trophoblast cells increased in both maternal and fetal surfaces of placenta with respect to the duration of morphine consumption which was overt in the experimental groups compared to the control groups. CONCLUSION: In general, the time-dependent effects of oral morphine consumption can inhibit the development and natural functioning of cytotrophoblast and syncytiotrophoblast cells of the placental layers.

Perceived Stress and Cfognition Function Quantification in a Scary Video Game: An Electroencephalogram Features and Biochemical Measures.

Introduction: Video games affect the stress system and cognitive abilities in different ways. Here, we evaluated electrophysiological and biochemical indicators of stress and assessed their effects on cognition and behavioral indexes after playing a scary video game. Methods: Thirty volunteers were recruited into two groups as control and experimental. The saliva and blood samples were collected before and after intervention (watching/playing the scary game for control and experimental groups respectively). To measure cortisol and salivary alpha-amylase (sAA) levels, oxytocin (OT), and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) plasma levels, dedicated ELISA kits were used. Electroencephalography recording was done before and after interventions for electroencephalogram (EEG)-based emotion and stress recognition. Then, the feature extraction (for mental stress, arousal, and valence) was done. Matrix laboratory (MATLAB) software, version 7.0.1 was used for processing EEG-acquired data. The repeated measures were applied to determine the intragroup significance level of difference. Results: Scary gameplay increases mental stress (P<0.001) and arousal (P<0.001) features and decreases the valence (P<0.001) one. The salivary cortisol and alpha-amylase levels were significantly higher after the gameplay (P<0.001 for both). OT and BDNF plasma levels decreased after playing the scary game (P<0.05 for both). Conclusion: We conclude that perceived stress considerably elevates among players of scary video games, which adversely affects the emotional and cognitive capabilities, possibly via the strength of synaptic connections, and dendritic thorn construction of the brain neurons among players. Highlights: The mental stress level increases in players of scary video games.The salivary cortisol and alpha-amylase levels are significantly higher after the scary gameplay.Plasma levels of oxytocin and brain-derived neurotrophic factor decrease after the scary gameplay.The arousal and valence features increase in players of scary video game.Cognitive capabilities are adversely affected by the scary gameplay. Plain Language Summary: Nowadays, video games have become an important part of human life at different ages. Therefore, assessing their effects (improving and/or damaging) on cognition and behavior is important for understanding how they affect the nervous system. The results of such studies can be used to design a variety of games in the future in a way that minimizes the harmful side effects of video games on human cognitive functions and maximizes their beneficial effects.

Investigating the effect of cognitive-behavioral educational intervention on the development of female teenagers' social skills in Khomeini Shahr.

BACKGROUND: Social skills are necessary for teenagers to have good interactions, accept roles, and adapt to conditions in the community. The present study investigated the effect of cognitive-behavioral educational intervention on students' social skills. MATERIALS AND METHODS: This experimental study was completed on 102 female students in Khomeini Shahr, Isfahan. Fifty-seven students participated in the online cognitive-behavioral educational program of social skills for five sessions, and 57 students were assigned to the control group. The data from the Matson Evaluation of Social Skills with Youngsters (for subjects aged 4-18 years old) were collected before and 1 month after the interventional program. The data were analyzed using SPSS 25, independent t-test, Mann-Whitney test, and Chi-squared test. RESULTS: The independent t-test showed that before the intervention, the total mean score of social skills and its variables were not significantly different between the intervention and control groups (P > 0.05). However, after the intervention, the total mean score of social skills and the variables of appropriate communication skills, relationship with peers, and impulsive behaviors in the intervention group was significantly more than the control group, but the mean scores of antisocial and arrogant behaviors (haughtiness) were not significantly different between the two times in the intervention and control groups. CONCLUSIONS: The results show that participation in educational intervention significantly increased student's social skills development; it is suggested to incorporate cognitive-behavioral intervention in educational programs for adolescents.

The Effect of Electrical Fields From High-voltage Transmission Line on Cognitive, Biological, and Anatomical Changes in Male Rhesus macaque Monkeys Using MRI: A Case Report Study.

Introduction: Living near high-voltage power lines and exposure to high-frequency electromagnetic fields (EMFs) is a potentially serious hazard to animal and human health. The present study was conducted to evaluate the effect of high-frequency EMFs from simulated high-voltage electric towers on cognitive, anatomical, and biological changes in the male macaque. Methods: In this study, two Rhesus macaque were recruited, one experimental and one control. The experimental subject was exposed to EMFs from 3 kV/m simulated electric towers with a specific protocol and the control subject was tested without irradiation (4h per day, for 30 days). All required tests were performed before and after the intervention on experimental and control monkeys. The anatomical alternation of the prefrontal area (PFA) was measured by MRI images. All tests were performed on irradiated and control animals before and after the intervention and the results were compared between irradiated and control animals. Results: The results of the present study indicated increased white blood cell counts after high-frequency EMFs irradiation. Also, the red blood cell counts showed a decreasing trend after irradiation. The plasma adrenaline level increased after irradiation. Besides, the blood glucose levels increased after irradiation. The PFA was different before and after the irradiation. Moreover, some behavioral disorders, such as fatigue, drowsiness, anorexia, and insomnia were observed after irradiation. Conclusion: The results of biological tests and MRI showed an elevated risk of immunodeficiency disorders, weakness, and behavioral disorders. People who live or work near high-voltage electric towers with high-frequency EMFs are warned. Highlights: Magnetic, and electric fields from high pressure towers caused negative effects in terms of biology and even anatomical changes in the prefrontal part of the brain.Disturbance in the prefrontal part of the brain caused the monkey's cognitive and behavioral disorder.An increase in white blood cells, a decrease in red blood cells, and an increase in the adrenaline and blood sugar were indicative of biological disorders after wave exposure in male rhesus monkeys.The effects of magnetic and electric fields resulting from high pressure towers on the nerves and psyche require health researchers to do more studies. Plain Language Summary: Today, one of the factors that threaten the cognitive and behavioral health of humans and animals is living in the vicinity of magnetic and electric fields resulting from the power transmission of high-pressure towers. These fields cause cognitive and behavioral disorders in living beings. Therefore, because it threatens the cognitive health of creatures, it needs more research.

The Effect of 12 Hz Extremely Low-frequency Electromagnetic Field on Visual Memory of Male Macaque Monkeys.

Introduction: Today, humans live in a world surrounded by electromagnetic fields. Numerous studies have been conducted to discover the biological, physiological, and behavioral effects of electromagnetic fields on humans and animals. Given the biological similarities between monkeys and humans, The present research aimed to examine Visual Memory (VM), hormonal, genomic, and anatomic changes, in the male rhesus macaques exposed to an Extremely Low-Frequency Magnetic Field (ELF-MF). Methods: Four male rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) were used. For the behavioral tests, the animals should be fasting for 17 hours. For the tests such as visual memory, the animal's cooperation was necessary. Using the radiation protocol, we exposed two monkeys to a 12-Hz electromagnetic field with a magnitude of 0.7 µT (electromagnetic radiation) four hours a day for a month. Before and after the exposure, a visual memory test was conducted using a coated device (visible reward) on a movable stand. Ten milliliters of blood was obtained from the femoral artery of each monkey, and half of it was used to examine cortisol serum levels using the MyBioSource kit (made in the USA). The other half of the blood was used to extract lymphocytes for assaying expressions of Glucocorticoid Receptor (GR) genes before and after radiation using the PCR method. Anatomic studies of the amygdala were carried out based on pre- and post-radiation Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI). Results: Research results indicated that visual memory in male primates increased significantly after exposure to the 12-Hz frequency. Hormonal analysis at the 12-Hz frequency showed a decrease in cortisol serum levels. However, visual memory and serum cortisol levels did not change considerably in male primates in the control group. There was no considerable amygdala volumetric difference after exposure to the 12-Hz frequency. The expression of the GR genes decreased in the 12-Hz group compared to the control group. Conclusion: In short, these results indicated that ELF might benefit memory enhancement because exposure to the 12-HZ ELF can enhance visual memory. This outcome may be due to a decrease in plasma cortisol and or expression of GR genes. Moreover, direct amygdala involvement in this regard cannot be recommended. Highlights: The effects of Extremely Low-Frequency Electromagnetic Fields (ELF-EMF) of 12 Hz on monkeys were studied.The results showed a reduction in the serum cortisol levels and the expression of GR genes.The amygdala anatomical area changes were not significant in the experimental group.In the experimental group, visual memory (delay of 30- and 60-s evaluation) improved after exposure to a frequency of 12 Hz. Plain Language Summary: Extremely low-frequency electromagnetic fields are among the most important factors affecting humans. This study aimed to determine the fields of 12-Hz frequency on the visual memory changes of male monkeys. The importance of research is due to the cognitive similarity of monkeys to humans. The findings of the research can be attributed to humans. Behavioral, hormonal, genetic, and anatomical studies indicated improvement in visual memory (test monkeys versus control monkeys). This study demonstrates the effect of the 12-Hz frequency on the monkey's visual memory. Researchers can study 12-Hz frequency in other cognitive indices.

The Effect of Brain Teaser Games on the Attention of Players Based on Hormonal and Brain Signals Changes.

INTRODUCTION: Computer games as an interactive media play a significant role in the cognitive and behavioral health of the players. Computer games have either positive or negative effects on cognitive indices among players. They also directly influence the lifestyle and quality of life of children, adolescents, and young adults. The present study aimed to evaluate the short-term effects of the brain teaser game on players. METHODS: Among 45 male volunteers, 40 subjects with an average age of 20 years were recruited and divided into two groups: the experimental group and the control group. All required tests were conducted before and after the intervention (playing the game) on the experimental group. Also, the same tests were performed on the control group, in which the participants were not allowed to play the game. All participants completed a questionnaire comprised demographic characteristics and specific information regarding the game (e.g., game style and hours spent on playing the game). The saliva samples were collected to measure levels of cortisol and α-amylase. The salivary α-amylase (sAA) and cortisol levels were analyzed using the relevant ELISA kits. The cognitive tests were performed using PASAT software before and after the game to assess the perceptual-cognitive abilities of the players. The brain waveforms were acquired by a 14-channel Emotiv brain signal recording device before and after the game. Data analysis was conducted in R and MATLAB software. RESULTS: PASAT test suggested that mental health and sustained attention were significantly improved after the intervention. In addition, the sAA and salivary cortisol levels were significantly higher before the intervention. The results of the brainwave analysis revealed that stress index and attention were significantly higher before the intervention. CONCLUSION: Findings of the present study suggest that brain teaser games positively influence the central nervous system and activate stress path, leading to changes in brain signals and subsequently improved cognitive elements, such as attention among players.

Changes in Cognitive Functions Following Violent and Football Video Games in Young Male Volunteers by Studying Brain Waves.

INTRODUCTION: This research investigated the effects of violent and football video games on cognitive functions, cortisol levels, and brain waves. METHODS: A total of 64 participants competed in a single-elimination tournament. Saliva samples of all players were obtained before and after the games for the assessment of cortisol levels. The cognitive performances of the players were also assessed by paced auditory serial addition test. Moreover, the electroencephalogram recording was conducted during the games. RESULTS: The results showed that salivary cortisol levels significantly decreased after playing both games. Also, playing the football game increased reaction time, whereas decreased sustained attention and mental fatigue. CONCLUSION: Conversely, following playing a violent game, the reaction time decreased, and sustained attention and mental fatigue increased. Furthermore, the results of the EEG recording revealed that playing a violent game engaged more brain regions than the football game. In conclusion, playing violent game more effectively improved cognitive performances in the players than the football game.

Effects of the Extremely Low Frequency Electromagnetic Fields on NMDA-Receptor Gene Expression and Visual Working Memory in Male Rhesus Macaques.

INTRODUCTION: The present research aimed to examine Visual Working Memory (VWM) test scores, as well as hormonal, genomic, and brain anatomic changes in the male rhesus macaques exposed to Extremely Low Frequency Magnetic Field (ELF-MF). METHODS: Four monkeys were exposed to two different ELF-MF frequencies: 1 Hz (control) and 12 Hz (experiment) with 0.7 µT (magnitude) 4 h/d for 30 consecutive days. Before and after the exposure, VWM test was conducted using a coated devise on a movable stand. About 10 mL of the animals' blood was obtained from their femoral vain and used to evaluate their melatonin concentration. Blood lymphocytes were used for assaying the expressions of N-Methyl-D-aspartate NMDA-receptor genes expression before and after ELF exposure. Anatomical changes of hippocampus size were also assessed using MRI images. RESULTS: Results indicated that VWM scores in primates exposed to 12 Hz frequency ELF increased significantly. Plasma melatonin level was also increased in these animals. However, these variables did not change in the animals exposed to 1 Hz ELF. At last, expression of the NMDA receptors increased at exposure to 12 Hz frequency. However, hippocampal volume did not increase significantly in the animals exposed to both frequencies. CONCLUSION: In short, these results indicate that ELF (12 Hz) may have a beneficial value for memory enhancement (indicated by the increase in VWM scores). This may be due to an increase in plasma melatonin and or expression of NMDA glutamate receptors. However, direct involvement of the hippocampus in this process needs more research.

The Beneficial or Harmful Effects of Computer Game Stress on Cognitive Functions of Players.

INTRODUCTION: Video games are common cultural issues with great influence in all societies. One of the important cognitive effects of video games is on creating stress on video players. The present research objective was to study different types of stress in players based on video game styles. METHODS: A total of 80 players, aged 18 to 30 years, played four types of video games; Runner game, Excitement game, Fear game, and Puzzle game. In the beginning, the players filled in the form of personal information as well as some general and specialized information on the games. Before starting each game, the saliva samples of the players were collected to measure their level of cortisol and α-amylase. At the end of each game, the same samples were collected again. The concentrations of cortisol and α-amylase were measured using a specialized kit and an ELISA device. In addition, the variations of brain waves were recorded by an Emotiv system. Finally, the data were analyzed in SPSS and Matlab system (after and before playing video game). RESULTS: The research findings revealed that the salivary α-amylase concentration increased significantly after playing the Fear game, Runner game, and Excitement game and decreased significantly after playing the Puzzle game. Moreover, the concentration of salivary cortisol increased significantly after playing the Runner game, Excitement game, and Fear game and decreased significantly after playing the Puzzle game. The brain wave analysis also revealed that the level of stress experienced by playing Fear game was higher than the Excitement game. CONCLUSION: According to the research findings, video games can affect the stress system as well as the cognitive system of humans depending on the game style. In addition, the type and level of stress triggered in the players depend on the game style.

Role of basal stress hormones and amygdala dimensions in stress coping strategies of male rhesus monkeys in response to a hazard-reward conflict.

OBJECTIVES: In the present study the effect of stress on monkeys that had learned to retrieve food from a five-chamber receptacle, as well as the relationship between their behavior and the serum cortisol and epinephrine levels and relative size of the amygdala was evaluated. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Six male rhesus monkeys were individually given access to the food reward orderly. They could easily retrieve the rewards from all chambers except for the chamber 4, which a brief, mild electric shock (3 V) was delivered to them upon touching the chamber's interior. The coping behaviors were video-recorded and analyzed offline. Baseline serum cortisol and epinephrine levels were measured before the experiments using monkey enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay kit. One week after the behavioral experiment, the monkeys' brains were scanned using magnetic resonance imaging under general anesthesia. The cross-sectional area of the left amygdala in sagittal plane relative to the area of the whole brain in the same slice was evaluated by the planimetric method using ImageJ software. RESULTS: Exposure to the distressing condition caused different behavioral responses. Monkeys with higher baseline levels of serum cortisol and epinephrine and larger amygdala behaved more violently in the face of stress, indicating adopting emotion-focused stress-coping strategies. Conversely, those with low plasma epinephrine, moderate cortisol, and smaller amygdala showed perseverative behavior, indicating a problem-focused coping style. CONCLUSION: In dealing with the same stress, different responses might be observed from nonhuman primates according to their cortisol and epinephrine levels as well as their amygdala dimensions.

The Effects of Fifa 2015 Computer Games on Changes in Cognitive, Hormonal and Brain Waves Functions of Young Men Volunteers.

INTRODUCTION: Computer games have attracted remarkable attentions in general publics with different cultures and their effects are subject of research by cognitive neuroscientists. In the present study, possible effects of the game Fifa 2015 on cognitive performance, hormonal levels, and electroencephalographic (EEG) signals were evaluated in young male volunteers. METHODS: Thirty two subjects aged 20 years on average participated mutually in playing computer game Fifa 2015. Identification information and general knowledge about the game were collected. Saliva samples from the contestants were obtained before and after the competition. Perceptive and cognitive performance including the general cognitive health, response delay, attention maintenance, and mental fatigue were measured using PASAT test. EEG were recorded during the play using EEG device and analyzed later using QEEG. Simultaneously, the players' behavior were recorded using a video camera. Saliva cortisol levels were assessed by ELISA kit. Data were analyzed by SPSS program. RESULTS: The impact of playing computer games on cortisol concentration of saliva before and after the game showed that the amount of saliva plasma after playing the game has dropped significantly. Also the impact of playing computer games on mental health, before and after the game indicated that the number of correct answers has not changed significantly. This indicates that sustained attention has increased in participants after the game in comparison with before that. Also it is shown that mental fatigue measured by PASAT test, did not changed significantly after the game in comparison to before that. The impact of game on changes in brain waves showed that the subjects in high activity state during playing the game had higher power of the EEG signals in most of the channels in lower frequency bands in compared to normal state. DISCUSSION: The present study showed that computer games can positively affect the stress system and the perceptual-cognitive system. Even though this impact was not significant in most cases, the changes in cognitive and hormonal test and also in brain waves were visible. Hence, due to the importance of this matter, it is necessary to create control systems in selecting the types of games for playing.

Identification of morphine accumulation in the rat embryo central nervous system: a c14-morphine administration study.

BACKGROUND: Previous studies have shown that morphine consumption during pregnancy may cause delay or defect of embryo development or abnormal nervous system function in the human and animal models. In the present study, the highest density of morphine accumulation in the central nervous system of rat embryos was evaluated using C14-morphine. METHODS: Female Wistar rats (W 170-200 g) used and were crossed with male rats and coupling time was recorded (Embryonic day 0-E0). Experimental groups received 0.05 mg/ml of C14-morphine in drinking water daily. On the 10(th) and 17(th) days of pregnancy, pregnant rats were anesthetized and the embryos with these uterus and placenta were surgically removed and were fixed in formalin 10% for 4 week. Then the embryos were processed, sectioned in 25 µm and 5 µm thicknesses, fixed on the glasses for further evaluations. The sectioned in 25, the glasses were fixed on the Blanc black and white film for 6 h. Then, the films were appeared and their negatives were prepared. The sectioned in five staining hematoxylin and eosin by light microscope and MOTIC software. RESULTS: Our results indicated that the highest C14-morphine accumulation was observed in the vesicles and the ventricular choroid plexus (CP) of (E17) embryos, whereas, in the (E10) embryos. Highest concentration was observed in the brain vesicles and the ventricular CP. In addition, this study showed the surface area of lateral, 3(rd) and 4(th) ventricular CP in the experimental groups were increased in compared to control groups. CONCLUSIONS: Our results indicated that effects of morphine on reduction of embryos brain development may be due to the highest accumulation of C14-morphine in the CP and brain vesicles.

Evaluating the effects of oral morphine on embryonic development of cerebellum in wistar rats.

In the present research, the effect of morphine consumption during pregnancy on the development of the embryo's spinal cord was studied in Wistar rat. FEMALE WISTAR RATS (WT: 250-300 g) were mated with males. The test group received morphine (0.01 mg/ml) in their drinking water. Pregnant rats were later killed with chloroform on the 12th, 13th and 14th days of pregnancy, and the embryos were taken out surgically. The embryos were fixed in formalin 10% for 2 weeks. Then, the weight of fixed embryos was calculated by a scale. In addition, several animals' sizes including fronto-posterior and lateral length were measured by a caliper. Tissue processing, sectioning and hematoxylin and eosin (H&E) staining were applied for the embryos. The sections were examined for spinal cord development by light microscope and MOTIC software. Significant decrease was observed in the fronto-posterior and lateral length and the weight of the embryos in the test groups. The thickness of the white matter layer decreased on the 12th, 13th and 14th embryonic days. The thickness of the spine's grey layer was also less than the control group, on the same days. Increase in the length of the ependimal duct observed as well. Number of grey substance cells decreased compared to the control group within the same days. Meanwhile, thickness of the germinal layer reduced in comparison to the control group on the mentioned days. In conclusion, morphine consumption during pregnancy causes defects in growth and completion of the spinal cord.

Identification of site of morphine action in pregnant wistar rat placenta tissue: a c(14)-morphine study.

OBJECTIVE: In previous studies it has been emphasized that the site of morphine action may be either in the embryo or the placenta. In the present study, we attempt to identify the site of morphine action on the fetal section of Wistar rat placenta by using C(14)-morphine. MATERIALS AND METHODS: IN THIS STUDY (EXPERIMENTAL), FEMALE WISTAR RATS (WEIGHTS: 170-200 g) were mated with male rats and their coupling times recorded. Experimental groups received daily doses of 0.05 mg/ml of C(14)-morphine in their drinking water. On the 9(th) and14(th) embryonic days, the pregnant rats were anesthetized and the placenta and uterus surgically removed. Placentas were fixed in 10% formalin for two weeks, then processed, sectioned in 5 µm and 25 µm thicknesses, and fixed on glass slides for further evaluation. The 25 µm sections were delivered to black and white film for three days. Films were processed and evaluated with a digital inverse microscope for possible radiological impression. The 5 µm sections were processed for hematoxylin and eosin (H&E) staining, and evaluated by light microscope and MOTIC software. RESULTS: Our results indicated that the site of action of C(14)-morphine was possibly located on the blood plexus of the fetal portion of the placenta. In addition, oral morphine consumption was shown to inhibit fetal and maternal placental development in the experimental groups. CONCLUSION: We conclude that morphine's effectiveness on the reduction of embryo growth and development may be via its effects on the blood plexus of the fetal section of the placenta.

Evaluation of placental epigenetic changes due to morphine consumption / Evaluación de cambios epigenéticos de la placenta por consumo de morfina

Based on previous studies, a variety of bioenvironmental elements including inappropriate nutrition, diseases, infections, stressors, and medications are involved in epigenetic changes. Drug abuse is one of the most important causes of epigenetic changes and a concern in today's world. Studies have shown that morphine use by pregnant mothers causes several disorders in mothers in addition to transferring abnormalities to the next generation (placenta and embryo). Epigenetic factors such as morphine cause changes in gene expression in placenta as the first embryonic defense barrier. Because placenta does all the nutritional exchanges between mother's and embryo's blood, placental health guarantees normal embryonic development. Many studies have been conducted on defects caused by epigenetic factors including medication use. Opioid abuse including morphine abuse has endangered health of many people. Morphine changes gene expression by binding to opioid receptors on placental villi. Based on the studies, major epigenetic changes due to drug use are mediated by DNA methylation and histone changes. Recognizing different epigenetic factors and their effect on placental and embryonic development is among modern studies. The importance of recognizing epigenetic changes caused by drug abuse by pregnant mothers can be the most important way to prevent adulthood diseases in the embryo and in some cases miscarriage. Changes induced by epigenetic factors can be moderated or reversed by controlling the epigenetic factors. This study is a review of changes caused by morphine use by pregnant rats on development of placenta.

Basado en estudios anteriores, una variedad de elementos bioambientales incluyendo la nutrición inadecuada, enfermedades, infecciones, factores de estrés, y los medicamentos están involucrados en los cambios epigenéticos. El abuso de drogas es una de las causas más importantes de los cambios epigenéticos y una preocupación en el mundo actual. Los estudios han demostrado que el uso de la morfina por parte de las madres embarazadas es la causa de varios trastornos en las madres, además de la transferencia de anormalidades a la siguiente generación (la placenta y el embrión). Factores epigenéticos como la morfina causan cambios en la expresión génica en la placenta como la primera barrera de defensa embrionaria. Debido a que la placenta es el medio de todos los intercambios nutricionales entre la madre y la sangre del embrión, la salud de la placenta garantiza el desarrollo embrionario normal. Muchos estudios se han realizado sobre los defectos causados por factores epigenéticos que incluyen el uso de medicamentos. El abuso de opioides, incluyendo la morfina ha puesto en peligro la salud de muchas personas. La morfina produce cambios de expresión génica mediante la unión a los receptores opioides en vellosidades placentarias. Basado en los estudios, los principales cambios epigenéticos debido al consumo de drogas están mediadas por metilación del ADN y los cambios en las histonas. En la actualidad se han publicado estudios referente al conocimiento de diferentes factores epigenéticos y su efecto sobre la placenta y el desarrollo embrionario. La importancia de reconocer los cambios epigenéticos causados por el abuso de drogas por mujeres embarazadas puede ser la forma más importante para prevenir las enfermedades de la edad adulta en el embrión y en algunos casos del aborto espontáneo. Los cambios inducidos por factores epigenéticos pueden ser moderados o revertidos mediante el control de los factores epigenéticos. Este estudio es una revisión de los cambios en el desarrollo de la placenta causados por el uso de morfina en ratas preñadas.

The effect of morphine consumption on plasma corticosteron concentration and placenta development in pregnant rats.

BACKGROUND: Previous studies have shown that morphine consumption during pregnancy may delay embryo development or cause abnormal nervous system function. OBJECTIVE: The present study focused on the effect of maternal morphine consumption on development of placenta and blood corticosteron concentration in addictive pregnant mothers. MATERIALS AND METHODS: 24 female rats, 170-200g weight, were used. The experimental groups after pregnancy received an oral dose of 0.05 mg/ml of morphine by tap water while the control group received only tap water. On 10(th) and 14(th) day of pregnancy, rats were anesthetized and placenta removed surgically, 1ml blood was collected from each pregnant mother from retro-orbital sinus, the concentration of blood corticosteron was determined by corticosteron Elisa kit after centrifugation. The fixed tissue was processed, sectioned and stained with hematoxylin and eosin. Placenta was studied microscopically according to the thickness of layers, area of blood cisterns, and the number of cells. RESULTS: Comparing the plasma corticosteron concentration of the treatment and the control groups, not only a severe increase in the treatment group was detected, but also the thickness of maternal and embryonic portions of the placenta at day 10(th) and 14(th) of gestation was different significantly (p≤0.05). Furthermore, an increase in number of cells in maternal and embryonic portion of placenta and a decrease in blood cistern area were demonstrated in both the experimental and the control groups. CONCLUSION: The effects of morphine, including an increase in blood concentration of corticosteron, in dependent pregnant mothers were seen. Development of placenta in the experimental group was delayed.

Effects of oral morphine on the larvae, pupae and imago development in Drosophila melanogaster.

OBJECTIVE: Previous studies, focusing on the effects of abused drugs, have used mice or rats as the main animal models; the present study tries to introduce a simple animal model. For this propose, we investigated the effects of oral morphine consumption by parents on the development of larvae, pupae and imago in Drosophila Melanogaster (D. Melanogaster). MATERIALS AND METHODS: In this experimental study, twenty male and 20 female D. Melanogaster pupae were housed in test tubes with banana (5 pupae /tube).). Male and female groups each were divided into three experimental group and one control group, which were maintained at 25℃. Morphine (0.2, 0.02, 0.002 mg/ml) was added into the test tubes of the experimental groups. The control group maintained at morphine-free test tube. The male and female groups with the same treatment were coupled and then female fertilization, egg deposit, larval, pupae and imago stages were studied macro and microscopically. The SPSS software (version 9.01) was used for statistical evaluations. RESULTS: In the experimental groups, in the larvae stage, both increase and decrease of length and surface area in the pupae stage were observed. The number of larvae pupae, and imago was reduced in the experimental groups. CONCLUSION: The study showed that oral morphine consumption by parents may affect the development of larvae, pupation and imago stages in D. Melanogaster. The results also showed that D. Melanogaster may be a reliable animal model to study on the concerns about abused drugs especially those with opioids.