Questioning the fetal microbiome illustrates pitfalls of low-biomass microbial studies.

Whether the human fetus and the prenatal intrauterine environment (amniotic fluid and placenta) are stably colonized by microbial communities in a healthy pregnancy remains a subject of debate. Here we evaluate recent studies that characterized microbial populations in human fetuses from the perspectives of reproductive biology, microbial ecology, bioinformatics, immunology, clinical microbiology and gnotobiology, and assess possible mechanisms by which the fetus might interact with microorganisms. Our analysis indicates that the detected microbial signals are likely the result of contamination during the clinical procedures to obtain fetal samples or during DNA extraction and DNA sequencing. Furthermore, the existence of live and replicating microbial populations in healthy fetal tissues is not compatible with fundamental concepts of immunology, clinical microbiology and the derivation of germ-free mammals. These conclusions are important to our understanding of human immune development and illustrate common pitfalls in the microbial analyses of many other low-biomass environments. The pursuit of a fetal microbiome serves as a cautionary example of the challenges of sequence-based microbiome studies when biomass is low or absent, and emphasizes the need for a trans-disciplinary approach that goes beyond contamination controls by also incorporating biological, ecological and mechanistic concepts.

Symposium review: Fueling appetite: Nutrient metabolism and the control of feed intake.

Conceptual models developed over the past century describe 2 key constraints to feed intake (FI) of healthy animals: gut capacity and metabolic demand. Evidence that greater energy demands (e.g., greater milk production) drive a corresponding increase in caloric intake led to the dominant concept that animals "eat to energy requirements." Although this model provides reasonable initial estimates of FI, it lacks a proposed physiological basis for the control system, does not consider nutrient constraints beyond energy, and fails to explain differential energy intake responses to different fuels. To address these gaps, research has focused on mechanisms for sensing nutrient availability and providing feedback to hypothalamic centers that integrate signals to control feeding behavior. The elimination of FI response to certain nutrients by vagotomy suggests that peripheral tissues play a role in nutrient sensing. These findings and the central role of the liver in metabolic flux led to the development of the hepatic oxidation theory (HOT). According to the HOT, liver energy charge is the regulated variable that induces dietary intake changes and consequently affects whole-body energy balance. Evidence in support of HOT includes associations between hepatic energy charge and meal patterns, increased FI in response to phosphate trapping, and reduced FI in response to phosphate loading. In accordance with the HOT, infusion studies in dairy cattle have consistently demonstrated that providing fuels that either oxidize or stimulate oxidation in the liver decreases FI and energy intake to a greater extent than fuels that bypass the liver. Importantly, this holds true for glucose, which is readily oxidized by nerve cells, but is rarely taken up by the bovine liver. Although the brain integrates multiple signals including those related to gastric distention and illness, the HOT provides a physiological framework for understanding the dominant role the liver likely plays in sensing short-term energy status. Understanding this model provides insights into how to use or bypass the regulatory system to manage FI of animals.

Paternal obesity induces placental hypoxia and sex-specific impairments in placental vascularization and offspring metabolism†.

Paternal obesity predisposes offspring to metabolic dysfunction, but the underlying mechanisms remain unclear. We investigated whether this metabolic dysfunction is associated with changes in placental vascular development and is fueled by endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress-mediated changes in fetal hepatic development. We also determined whether paternal obesity indirectly affects the in utero environment by disrupting maternal metabolic adaptations to pregnancy. Male mice fed a standard chow or high fat diet (60%kcal fat) for 8-10 weeks were time-mated with female mice to generate pregnancies and offspring. Glucose tolerance was evaluated in dams at mid-gestation (embryonic day (E) 14.5) and late gestation (E18.5). Hypoxia, angiogenesis, endocrine function, macronutrient transport, and ER stress markers were evaluated in E14.5 and E18.5 placentae and/or fetal livers. Maternal glucose tolerance was assessed at E14.5 and E18.5. Metabolic parameters were assessed in offspring at ~60 days of age. Paternal obesity did not alter maternal glucose tolerance but induced placental hypoxia and altered placental angiogenic markers, with the most pronounced effects in female placentae. Paternal obesity increased ER stress-related protein levels (ATF6 and PERK) in the fetal liver and altered hepatic expression of gluconeogenic factors at E18.5. Offspring of obese fathers were glucose intolerant and had impaired whole-body energy metabolism, with more pronounced effects in female offspring. Metabolic deficits in offspring due to paternal obesity may be mediated by sex-specific changes in placental vessel structure and integrity that contribute to placental hypoxia and may lead to poor fetal oxygenation and impairments in fetal metabolic signaling pathways in the liver.

Exposure to high fructose corn syrup during adolescence in the mouse alters hepatic metabolism and the microbiome in a sex-specific manner.

KEY POINTS: The prevalence of obesity and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease in children is dramatically increasing at the same time as consumption of foods with a high sugar content. Intake of high fructose corn syrup (HFCS) is a possible aetiology as it is thought to be more lipogenic than glucose. In a mouse model, HFCS intake during adolescence increased fat mass and hepatic lipid levels in male and female mice. However, only males showed impaired glucose tolerance. Multiple metabolites including lipids, bile acids, carbohydrates and amino acids were altered in liver in a sex-specific manner at 6 weeks of age. Some of these changes were also present in adulthood even though HFCS exposure ended at 6 weeks. HFCS significantly altered the gut microbiome, which was associated with changes in key microbial metabolites. These results suggest that HFCS intake during adolescence has profound metabolic changes that are linked to changes in the microbiome and these changes are sex-specific. ABSTRACT: The rapid increase in obesity, diabetes and fatty liver disease in children over the past 20 years has been linked to increased consumption of high fructose corn syrup (HFCS), making it essential to determine the short- and long-term effects of HFCS during this vulnerable developmental window. We hypothesized that HFCS exposure during adolescence significantly impairs hepatic metabolic signalling pathways and alters gut microbial composition, contributing to changes in energy metabolism with sex-specific effects. C57bl/6J mice with free access to HFCS during adolescence (3-6 weeks of age) underwent glucose tolerance and body composition testing and hepatic metabolomics, gene expression and triglyceride content analysis at 6 and 30 weeks of age (n = 6-8 per sex). At 6 weeks HFCS-exposed mice had significant increases in fat mass, glucose intolerance, hepatic triglycerides (females) and de novo lipogenesis gene expression (ACC, DGAT, FAS, ChREBP, SCD, SREBP, CPT and PPARα) with sex-specific effects. At 30 weeks, HFCS-exposed mice also had abnormalities in glucose tolerance (males) and fat mass (females). HFCS exposure enriched carbohydrate, amino acid, long chain fatty acid and secondary bile acid metabolism at 6 weeks with changes in secondary bile metabolism at 6 and 30 weeks. Microbiome studies performed immediately before and after HFCS exposure identified profound shifts of microbial species in male mice only. In summary, short-term HFCS exposure during adolescence induces fatty liver, alters important metabolic pathways, some of which continue to be altered in adulthood, and changes the microbiome in a sex-specific manner.

Effect of uncouplers of oxidative phosphorylation on metabolism of propionate in liver explants from dairy cows.

Our objective was to determine the effects of uncouplers of oxidative phosphorylation on the metabolism of propionate in liver tissue of dairy cows in the postpartum period. A total of 8 primiparous dairy cows were biopsied for liver tissue explants in 2 block-design experiments. Cows were 5.9 ± 2.8 (mean ± SD) days in milk, and the 2 experiments were run concurrently. Treatments for experiment 1 were 10 µM 2,4-dinitrophenol methyl ether (DNPME) or propylene carbonate (vehicle control). Treatments for experiment 2 were 5 mM sodium salicylate (SAL) or no treatment (control). Explants were incubated in 2.5 mM [13C3]propionate with treatments and terminated after 0.5, 15, and 60 min of exposure to tracer. Treatment with DNPME had no effects on measured metabolites compared with control. Treatment with SAL increased total 13C% enrichment of succinate (3.03 vs. 2.45%), but tended to decrease total 13C% enrichment of fumarate (2.86 vs. 3.10%) and decreased total 13C% enrichment of malate (3.96 vs. 4.58%) compared with the control. Treatment with DNPME appeared to have no effects on hepatic propionate metabolism, and treatment with SAL may impair the succinate dehydrogenase reaction.

Effects of propionate concentration on short-term metabolism in liver explants from dairy cows in the postpartum period.

Our objective was to determine the temporal effects of increasing supply of propionate on propionate metabolism in liver tissue of dairy cows in the postpartum (PP) period. A total of 6 dairy cows [primiparous: n = 3, 9.00 ± 1.00 d PP (mean ± SD) and multiparous: n = 3; 4.67 ± 1.15 d PP] were biopsied for liver explants in a block-design experiment. Explants were treated with 3 concentrations of [13C3]sodium propionate of 1, 2, or 4 mM. Explants were incubated in 2 mL of Medium 199 supplemented with 1% BSA, 0.6 mM oleic acid, 2 mM sodium l-lactate, 0.2 mM sodium pyruvate, and 0.5 mMl-glutamine at 38°C and sampled at 0.5, 15, and 60 min. Increasing the concentration of [13C3]propionate increased total 13C% enrichment of propionyl coenzyme A (CoA), succinate, fumarate, malate, and citrate with time. Concentration of propionate did not affect total 13C% enrichment of hepatic glucose or acetyl CoA, but total 13C% enrichment increased with time for hepatic glucose. The 13C labeling from propionate was incorporated into acetyl CoA, but increased concentrations of propionate did not result in greater labeling of acetyl CoA. However, increases in 13C% enrichment of [M+4]citrate and [M+5]citrate concentrations of [13C3]propionate indicate propionate conversion to acetyl CoA and subsequent entry of acetyl CoA into the tricarboxylic acid cycle in dairy cows in the PP period. This research presents evidence that despite an increase in hepatic acetyl CoA concentration and general consensus on the upregulation of gluconeogenesis of dairy cows during the PP period, carbon derived from propionate contributes to the pool of acetyl CoA, which increases as concentration of propionate increases, in addition to stimulating oxidation of acetyl CoA from other sources. Because of the hypophagic effects of propionate, but importance of propionate as a glucose precursor, a balance of propionate supply to dairy cows could lead to improvements in dry matter intake, and subsequently, health and production in dairy cows.

High-fat diet intake modulates maternal intestinal adaptations to pregnancy and results in placental hypoxia, as well as altered fetal gut barrier proteins and immune markers.

KEY POINTS: Maternal obesity has been associated with shifts in intestinal microbiota, which may contribute to impaired barrier function Impaired barrier function may expose the placenta and fetus to pro-inflammatory mediators We investigated the impacts of diet-induced obesity in mice on maternal and fetal intestinal structure and placental vascularization Diet-induced obesity decreased maternal intestinal short chain fatty acids and their receptors, impaired gut barrier integrity and was associated with fetal intestinal inflammation. Placenta from obese mothers showed blood vessel immaturity, hypoxia, increased transcript levels of inflammation, autophagy and altered levels of endoplasmic reticulum stress markers. These data suggest that maternal intestinal changes probably contribute to adverse placental adaptations and also impart an increased risk of obesity in the offspring via alterations in fetal gut development. ABSTRACT: Shifts in maternal intestinal microbiota have been implicated in metabolic adaptations to pregnancy. In the present study, we generated cohorts of female C57BL/6J mice fed a control (17% kcal fat, n = 10-14) or a high-fat diet (HFD 60% kcal from fat, n = 10-14; ad libitum) aiming to investigate the impact on the maternal gut microbiota, intestinal inflammation and gut barrier integrity, placental inflammation and fetal intestinal development at embryonic day 18.5. HFD was associated with decreased relative abundances of short-chain fatty acid (SCFA) producing genera during pregnancy. These diet-induced shifts paralleled decreased maternal intestinal mRNA levels of SCFA receptor Gpr41, modestly decreased cecal butyrate, and altered mRNA levels of inflammatory cytokines and immune cell markers in the maternal intestine. Maternal HFD resulted in impaired gut barrier integrity, with corresponding increases in circulating maternal levels of lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and tumour necrosis factor. Placentas from HFD dams demonstrated blood vessel immaturity and hypoxia; decreased free carnitine, acylcarnitine derivatives and trimethylamine-N-oxide; and altered mRNA levels of inflammation, autophagy, and ER stress markers. HFD exposed fetuses had increased activation of nuclear factor-kappa B and inhibition of the unfolded protein response in the developing intestine. Taken together, these data suggest that HFD intake prior to and during pregnancy shifts the composition of the maternal gut microbiota and impairs gut barrier integrity, resulting in increased maternal circulating LPS, which may ultimate contribute to changes in placental vascularization and fetal gut development.

Hepatic metabolism of propionate relative to meals for cows in the postpartum period.

The objective of this research was to identify potential short-term metabolic bottlenecks of propionate metabolism in the liver of dairy cows in the postpartum (PP) period and how such bottlenecks are affected by feeding status. Propionate, produced primarily from the fermentation of starch, decreases dry matter intake for cows in the postpartum period, likely by stimulating oxidation of acetyl-CoA in the liver. In this study, 8 dairy cows [2 blocks of 4 cows each, 6.63 ± 1.19 (mean ± SD) days PP; body condition score of 2.84 ± 0.39] were administered a pulse dose of either 1.5 mol/500 mL of propionic acid (PA) or 500 mL of water (control; CON) to the rumen either 1 h before or 2 h after feeding in a 4 × 4 Latin square design with a 2 × 2 factorial arrangement of treatments. Liver tissue was sampled at -1, 10 and 20 min relative to dosing, and blood was sampled at -30, -20, -10, -1, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, and 60 min relative to dosing. We hypothesized that rapid propionate absorption results in bottlenecks as enzymes become saturated and cofactors require regeneration. The PA treatment increased plasma propionate and insulin concentrations rapidly, with peaks reached by 5 min regardless of feeding status and cleared from the plasma within 30 min of dosing. The PA treatment decreased plasma nonesterified fatty acid concentration over 30 min compared with CON before but not after feeding. The PA treatment decreased plasma ß-hydroxybutyrate concentration and increased plasma lactate concentration compared with CON both before and after feeding. The PA treatment also increased hepatic pyruvate and lactate concentrations compared with CON. The PA treatment tended to increase hepatic isocitrate and fumarate concentrations but did not affect hepatic malate and oxaloacetate concentrations, suggesting that elevated mitochondrial NADH/NAD+ may have slowed the isocitrate dehydrogenase and fumarase reactions. The PA treatment also increased succinate concentration compared with CON, suggesting that a bottleneck may be present at succinate dehydrogenase. The PA treatment tended to increase citrate concentration despite having no effects on acetyl-CoA or oxaloacetate concentrations. These results are in agreement with our hypothesis that rapid absorption of propionate from the rumen and extraction by the liver results in metabolic bottlenecks in the liver that may affect feeding behavior and dry matter intake in dairy cows in the PP period.

The effect of uncouplers of oxidative phosphorylation on the feeding behavior of lactating dairy cows.

Our objective was to determine the effects of uncouplers of oxidative phosphorylation on feeding behavior of lactating dairy cows. We hypothesized that uncouplers of oxidative phosphorylation would increase meal size and meal length and performed 2 experiments to test our hypothesis. In experiment 1, 4 late-lactation cows (345 ± 48.4 d in milk; mean ± SD) were administered a daily intrajugular injection of either 10 mg/kg of BW0.75 of 2,4-dinitrophenol methyl ether (DNPME) and propylene carbonate or propylene carbonate (control; CON) in a crossover design with 2-d periods. In experiment 2, 8 early-lactation cows (11.3 ± 0.89 d in milk) were administered a daily intrajugular injection via jugular catheter of either 50 mg/kg of BW of sodium salicylate (SAL) and saline or saline (control; CON) in a crossover design with 1-d periods. Feeding behavior was recorded by a computerized data acquisition system and analyzed for the first 4 h after access to feed within 15 min of treatment for both experiments. Neither DNPME nor SAL affected meal size over the first 4 h after access to feed. However, DNPME increased meal length by 6.4 min (26.3 vs. 19.9 min) and tended to decrease the number of meals (2.55 vs. 2.78 meals/4 h) over the first 4 h after access to feed compared with CON. Both DNPME and SAL decreased eating rate over the first 4 h after access to feed compared with their respective controls (0.10 vs. 0.12 kg/min for DNPME vs. CON; 0.06 vs. 0.07 kg/min for SAL vs. CON). Lack of treatment effects on meal size may have been caused by increased rate of oxidation of fuels compensating for the disruption of oxidative phosphorylation.

Temporal effects of ruminal infusion of propionic acid on hepatic metabolism in cows in the postpartum period.

A faster rate of infusion of propionic acid into the rumen of cows in the postpartum period increased meal size compared with a slower rate of infusion in a previous experiment. Because propionate is anaplerotic and stimulates oxidation of acetyl coenzyme A (CoA) in the liver, and hepatic oxidation has been linked to satiety, this result was opposite to our expected response. We then hypothesized that the faster rate of infusion might have saturated the pathway for propionate metabolism in hepatocytes resulting in lower first-pass extraction by the liver. Because we were measuring feeding behavior, we could not sample blood and liver tissue over time in that experiment. Therefore, to determine the temporal effects of propionic acid (PA) infusion on hepatic metabolism and plasma metabolites over the time course of a meal, we infused 1.25 mol of PA (2.5 L of 0.5M PA) over 5 min (FST) or 15 min (SLW) into the rumen. We evaluated response to PA infusions both before feeding, when ruminal PA production by rumen microbes is lower and hepatic acetyl CoA concentration is greater, and 4 h after feeding, when PA production is greater and hepatic acetyl CoA concentration is lower. Blood and liver samples were collected before, and after 5, 15, and 30 min of infusion. Contrary to our hypothesis, the rate of PA infusion into the rumen did not affect plasma propionate concentration, indicating the FST effects on feeding behavior were not because of a limitation on propionate uptake by the liver. However, FST increased plasma glucose and insulin concentrations faster than SLW, resulting in a reduction in plasma nonesterified fatty acid concentration during the time frame of meals. Decreased plasma nonesterified fatty acid concentration during infusion likely decreased the supply of acetyl CoA for oxidation in the liver. The FST treatment also increased fumarate concentration at 5 min after the initiation of infusion but did not affect oxaloacetate concentration compared with SLW, consistent with a limitation to propionate metabolism at that reaction. A metabolic bottleneck at the malate dehydrogenase reaction for FST compared with SLW would further contribute to a reduction in hepatic oxidation within the time frame of a meal, allowing greater meal size, consistent with the hepatic oxidation theory and our previous results.

Immune cells phenotype and bioenergetic measures in CD4+ T cells differ between high and low feed efficient dairy cows.

Identifying sources of variance that contribute to residual feed intake (RFI) can aid in improving feed efficiency. The objectives of this study were to investigate immune cells phenotype and bioenergetic measures in CD4+ T cells in low feed efficient (LE) and high feed efficient (HE) dairy cows. Sixty-four Holstein cows were enrolled at 93 ± 22 days in milk (DIM) and monitored for 7 weeks to measure RFI. Cows with the highest RFI (LE; n = 14) or lowest RFI (HE; n = 14) were selected to determine immune cells phenotype using flow cytometry. Blood was sampled in the same LE and HE cows at 234 ± 22 DIM to isolate peripheral blood mononuclear cells, followed by magnetic separation of CD4+ T lymphocytes using bovine specific monoclonal antibodies. The metabolic function of isolated CD4+ T lymphocytes was evaluated under resting and activated states. An increased expression of CD62L+ cells within CD8+ T lymphocytes and CD21+ B lymphocytes was observed in HE cows compared to LE cows. CD4+ T lymphocytes of HE cows exhibited an increased mitochondrial and glycolytic activity in resting and activated states compared to LE cows. These data suggest that immune cells in HE cows exhibit an increased metabolic function, which might influence nutrient partitioning and utilization and serve as a source of variation in feed efficiency that warrants future investigation.

Parity modulates impact of BMI and gestational weight gain on gut microbiota in human pregnancy.

Dysregulation of maternal adaptations to pregnancy due to high pre-pregnancy BMI (pBMI) or excess gestational weight gain (GWG) is associated with worsened health outcomes for mothers and children. Whether the gut microbiome contributes to these adaptations is unclear. We longitudinally investigated the impact of pBMI and GWG on the pregnant gut microbiome. We show that the gut microbiota of participants with higher pBMI changed less over the course of pregnancy in primiparous but not multiparous participants. This suggests that previous pregnancies may have persistent impacts on maternal adaptations to pregnancy. This ecological memory appears to be passed on to the next generation, as parity modulated the impact of maternal GWG on the infant gut microbiome. This work supports a role of the gut microbiome in maternal adaptations to pregnancy and highlights the need for longitudinal sampling and accounting for parity as key considerations for studies of the microbiome in pregnancy and infants. Understanding how these factors contribute to and shape maternal health is essential for the development of interventions impacting the microbiome, including pre/probiotics.

Intestinal permeability and peripheral immune cell composition are altered by pregnancy and adiposity at mid- and late-gestation in the mouse.

It is clear that the gastrointestinal tract influences metabolism and immune function. Most studies to date have used male test subjects, with a focus on effects of obesity and dietary challenges. Despite significant physiological maternal adaptations that occur across gestation, relatively few studies have examined pregnancy-related gut function. Moreover, it remains unknown how pregnancy and diet can interact to alter intestinal barrier function. In this study, we investigated the impacts of pregnancy and adiposity on maternal intestinal epithelium morphology, in vivo intestinal permeability, and peripheral blood immunophenotype, using control (CTL) and high-fat (HF) fed non-pregnant female mice and pregnant mice at mid- (embryonic day (E)14.5) and late (E18.5) gestation. We found that small intestine length increased between non-pregnant mice and dams at late-gestation, but ileum villus length, and ileum and colon crypt depths and goblet cell numbers remained similar. Compared to CTL-fed mice, HF-fed mice had reduced small intestine length, ileum crypt depth and villus length. Goblet cell numbers were only consistently reduced in HF-fed non-pregnant mice. Pregnancy increased in vivo gut permeability, with a greater effect at mid- versus late-gestation. Non-pregnant HF-fed mice had greater gut permeability, and permeability was also increased in HF-fed pregnant dams at mid but not late-gestation. The impaired maternal gut barrier in HF-fed dams at mid-gestation coincided with changes in maternal blood and bone marrow immune cell composition, including an expansion of circulating inflammatory Ly6Chigh monocytes. In summary, pregnancy has temporal effects on maternal intestinal structure and barrier function, and on peripheral immunophenotype, which are further modified by HF diet-induced maternal adiposity. Maternal adaptations in pregnancy are thus vulnerable to excess maternal adiposity, which may both affect maternal and child health.

Fetal meconium does not have a detectable microbiota before birth.

Microbial colonization of the human intestine impacts host metabolism and immunity; however, exactly when colonization occurs is unclear. Although many studies have reported bacterial DNA in first-pass meconium samples, these samples are typically collected hours to days after birth. Here, we investigated whether bacteria could be detected in meconium before birth. Fetal meconium (n = 20) was collected by rectal swab during elective breech caesarean deliveries without labour and before antibiotics and compared to technical and procedural controls (n = 5), first-pass meconium (neonatal meconium; n = 14) and infant stool (n = 25). Unlike first-pass meconium, no microbial signal distinct from negative controls was detected in fetal meconium by 16S ribosomal RNA gene sequencing. Additionally, positive aerobic (n = 10 of 20) and anaerobic (n = 12 of 20) clinical cultures of fetal meconium (13 of 20 samples positive in at least one culture) were identified as likely skin contaminants, most frequently Staphylococcus epidermidis, and not detected by sequencing in most samples (same genera detected by culture and sequencing in 2 of 13 samples with positive culture). We conclude that fetal gut colonization of healthy term infants does not occur before birth and that microbial profiles of neonatal meconium reflect populations acquired during and after birth.

Placental Metabolomics for Assessment of Sex-specific Differences in Fetal Development During Normal Gestation.

The placenta is a metabolically active interfacial organ that plays crucial roles in fetal nutrient delivery, gas exchange and waste removal reflecting dynamic maternal and fetal interactions during gestation. There is growing evidence that the sex of the placenta influences fetal responses to external stimuli in utero, such as changes in maternal nutrition and exposure to environmental stressors. However, the exact biochemical mechanisms associated with sex-specific metabolic adaptations during pregnancy and its link to placental function and fetal development remain poorly understood. Herein, multisegment injection-capillary electrophoresis-mass spectrometry is used as a high throughput metabolomics platform to characterize lyophilized placental tissue (~2 mg dried weight) from C57BL/6J mice fed a standardized diet. Over 130 authentic metabolites were consistently measured from placental extracts when using a nontargeted metabolomics workflow with stringent quality control and robust batch correction. Our work revealed distinct metabolic phenotype differences that exist between male (n = 14) and female (n = 14) placentae collected at embryonic day E18.5. Intracellular metabolites associated with fatty acid oxidation and purine degradation were found to be elevated in females as compared to male placentae (p < 0.05, effect size >0.40), including uric acid, valerylcarnitine, hexanoylcarnitine, and 3-hydroxyhexanolycarnitine. This murine model sheds new insights into sex-specific differences in placental mitochondrial function and protective mechanisms against deleterious oxidative stress that may impact fetal growth and birth outcomes later in life.

Inhibition of Clostridium perfringens growth by potassium lactate during an extended cooling of cooked uncured ground turkey breasts.

The U.S. Department of Agriculture's Food Safety and Inspection Service compliance guideline known as Appendix B specifies chilling time and temperature limits for cured and uncured meat products to inhibit growth of spore-forming bacteria, particularly Clostridium perfringens. Sodium lactate and potassium lactate inhibit toxigenic growth of Clostridium botulinum, and inhibition of C. perfringens has been reported. In this study, a cocktail of spores of three C. perfringens strains (ATCC 13124, ATCC 12915, and ATCC 12916) were inoculated into 100-g samples of ground skinless, boneless turkey breast formulated to represent deli-style turkey breast. Three treatment groups were supplemented with 0 (control), 1, or 2% potassium lactate (pure basis), cooked to 71 °C, and assayed for C. perfringens growth during 10 or 12 h of linear cooling to 4 °C. In control samples, populations of C. perfringens increased 3.8 to 4.7 log CFU/g during the two chilling protocols. The 1% potassium lactate treatment supported only a 2.5- to 2.7-log increase, and the 2% potassium lactate treatment limited growth to a 0.56- to 0.70-log increase. When compared with the control, 2% potassium lactate retarded growth by 2.65 and 4.21 log CFU/g for the 10- and 12-h cooling protocols, respectively. These results confirm that the addition of 2% potassium lactate inhibits growth of C. perfringens and that potassium lactate can be used as an alternative to sodium nitrite for safe extended cooling of uncured meats.