Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 Vpr is a positive regulator of viral transcription and infectivity in primary human macrophages.

It is currently well established that HIV-1 Vpr augments viral replication in primary human macrophages. In its virion-associated form, Vpr has been suggested to aid efficient translocation of the proviral DNA into the cell nucleus. Although Vpr growth-arrests dividing T cells, the relevance of this biological activity in nondividing macrophages is unclear. Here we use Vpr-mutants to demonstrate that the molecular determinants involved in G2-arresting T cells are also involved in increasing viral transcription in macrophages, even though these cells are refractive to the diploid DNA status typical of G2 phase. Our results suggest that the two phenotypes, namely the nuclear localization and the G2-arrest activity of the protein, segregate functionally among the late and early functions of Vpr. The nuclear localization property of Vpr correlates with its ability to effectively target the proviral DNA to the cell nucleus early in the infection, whereas the G2-arrest phenotype correlates with its ability to activate viral transcription after establishment of an infection. These two functions may render Vpr's role essential and not accessory under infection conditions that closely mimic the in vivo situation, that is, primary cells being infected at low viral inputs.

Neuropathology of NFHgp160 transgenic mice expressing HIV-1 env protein in neurons.

The physiopathology of HIV-1 dementia remains largely hypothetical. Although several sets of evidence point towards an indirect multicellular inflammatory pathway, gp120, one of the HIV-1 env products, was shown to be very cytotoxic for neurons in vitro. To explore a direct pathway in the physiopathology of dementia in AIDS, we developed transgenic mouse models carrying the HIV-1 env proteins gp 120 and gp 41 (gp 160) under the control of the human light neurofilament and murine heavy neurofilament promoters. To date, this is the first mouse model in which the HIV-1 env protein can be detected in neurons by immunohistochemistry. The expression is found in several brainstem and spinal cord gray structures and in the cerebellum in one of the mouse lines bearing the NFHgp160 transgene. The morphological findings at 3 months are subtle and are dominated by a watery, dendritic degeneration and a reactive gliosis. At 12 months, the evidence of neuronal degeneration and loss is present along with various degenerative phenomena involving synapses, dendrites and axons, including axonal swellings. Cytoskeletal abnormalities were found by immunohistochemistry. Chronic inflammation was also observed in the leptomeninges of the spinal cord and brainstem and in the cerebellar white matter. These models thus offer an exciting sequence of morphological findings initiated by the neuronal expression of the HIV-1 env proteins and offer a different tool to explore the neuronal dysfunction in AIDS.

Absence of prolonged immunosilent infection with human immunodeficiency virus in individuals with high-risk behaviors.

PURPOSE: The presence in some individuals of a prolonged phase of infection with human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) before seroconversion remains controversial. This study was undertaken to determine with a sensitive in vitro amplification technique, the polymerase chain reaction (PCR), whether seronegative individuals with high-risk behaviors could harbor HIV-1 sequences in their peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) and remain seronegative for more than 6 months. PATIENTS AND METHODS: Seronegative individuals who engaged in unprotected anogenital intercourse with HIV-1-infected partners or with more than 10 individuals per year, and seronegative individuals who shared needles with seropositive partners, were recruited prospectively over 18 months. HIV-1 DNA and RNA sequences were detected in PBMCs of these individuals with three PCR assays using SK38/SK39, SK145/SK431, and SK68/SK69. Seronegative but PCR-positive patients were also evaluated with p24 antigen capture assay, radioimmunoprecipitation assay, and Western blot. The latter patients were followed prospectively to reproduce PCR-positive results and monitor serologic responses. RESULTS: Sixty-one men and 18 women, with an average age of 34.1 +/- 7.6 years, were recruited: 56 were homosexual men, 18 were heterosexual women, and 5 were heterosexual men. Amplification reactions for HIV-1 of 104 PBMC specimens from 79 patients with negative or indeterminate serologies revealed that 4 patients (5.1%) were positive with PCR for HIV-1 DNA and RNA at the time of enrollment. Positive amplification reactions could not be reproduced in prospective samples for one patient. The analysis of a variable human genomic locus in this patient's PBMCs demonstrated that the first PCR-positive sample and following PCR-negative samples originated from different patients, suggesting a specimen mix-up. Two of the three PCR-positive seronegative patients had symptoms suggestive of acute retroviral disease. Sera from all three patients contained p24 antigen. Two patients seroconverted within 1 month whereas one patient could not be followed prospectively. CONCLUSION: Prolonged infection with HIV-1 without seroconversion was not found in our population of patients at very high risk for HIV-1 infection. All PCR-positive patients seroconverted in less than 1 month.

Retention of herpes simplex virus type II sequences in bglII n-transformed cells after co-transfection with a selectable marker.

Transformation of mammalian cells by total u.v.-inactivated herpes simplex virus II (HSVII) or cloned fragments thereof (BglII n, BglII C) has been complicated both by a low efficiency of oncogenic transformation and the disappearance of viral DNA and/or viral products initially detected in the transformed cell lines. In an attempt to effect a stable integration of BglII n and to elucidate the role of HSVII in oncogenic transformation, we have co-transfected NIH 3T3 cells with pAG60, a plasmid which confers resistance to the G418 antibiotic, and plasmids containing either BglII n in its entirety (pNB2) or one of five subfragments of BglII n. Several isolated clones exhibit a transformed phenotype as expressed by rapid growth in low serum concentrations and colony formation in soft agar. We have obtained a markedly reduced frequency of biochemical transformants when co-transfecting pNB2 in comparison with the numbers obtained when cotransfecting the five subfragments. Furthermore, a greater proportion of subfragment-transfected colonies contain viral DNA, and in higher copy number, than observed in the pAG60/pNB2 clones. We have also found viral DNA to be more stably integrated in the subfragment-transfected clones than in the pNB2-transfected clones.

Transformation of NIH 3T3 cells by herpes simplex type 2 BglII n fragment and sub-fragments is independent from induction of mutation at the HPRT locus.

The effect of transfection of the herpes simplex virus type 2 transforming fragment BglII n and of its three Xhol subfragments on mutagenesis and morphological transformation was assayed in NIH 3T3 cells. While BglII n and the right hand portion of this fragment increased the number of transformed foci, no significant effects on the mutation frequency at the hprt locus were observed. Our results indicate that transformation by BglII n is independent from the induction of somatic mutations and suggest that other mechanisms must be considered to explain transformation by this sequence.

Detection of polymerase chain reaction-amplified human immunodeficiency virus type 1 proviral DNA with a digoxigenin-labeled RNA probe and an enzyme-linked immunoassay.

An enzyme-linked immunoassay (EIA) combined with a solution hybridization (SH) reaction was devised to detect human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) provirus amplified by the polymerase chain reaction (PCR). In this nonisotopic PCR assay, designated PCR-EIASH, a fragment of the HIV-1 gag gene from peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) was first amplified with biotinylated primers. The biotinylated amplified DNA segment was reacted in solution with an internal RNA probe labeled with digoxigenin-11-UTP. Hybrids were captured in a microtiter plate coated with streptavidin. Specific bound hybrids were quantitated by the addition of an enzyme-labeled antibody against digoxigenin and a fluorogenic substrate. The hybridization, immunological, and amplification parameters of PCR-EIASH were optimized as follows: 12.5 pmol of each primer was used in the PCR; the reannealing reaction of amplified products with the RNA probe, which was used at 0.30 microgram/ml, was completed in 30 min at 70 degrees C in 2x SSC (1x SSC is 0.15 M NaCl plus 0.015 M sodium citrate). Five copies of HIV-1 DNA diluted in a lysate of 100,000 PBMCs from a seronegative control could be detected by PCR-EIASH with a signal of 41 +/- 3 fluorescent units above a background noise of 13 +/- 2 fluorescent units. A total of 91 PBMC lysates from 91 seropositive patients sampled once and 20 PBMC lysates from 10 seropositive patients sampled twice were tested in duplicate in the PCR-EIASH; 107 samples were positive in duplicate tests, 1 sample was indeterminate, and 3 samples were negative. Of the latter three samples, one became positive by diluting the cell lysate, suggesting the presence of an inhibitor of Taq polymerase. The three samples negative for HIV-1 by PCR-EIASH were also negative when amplified with SK145-SK39 and detected with 32P-labeled SK102.

Clinical evaluation of Amplicor HIV-1 test for detection of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 proviral DNA in peripheral blood mononuclear cells.

We report here the clinical evaluation of Amplicor polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assay for the detection of the human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs). Results obtained with Amplicor HIV-1 test were compared to serological status and a standard PCR assay using SK38/SK39 and oligomer hybridization with SK19. A panel of 208 well-characterized specimens was analyzed, including PBMC lysates from 47 antibody-negative high-risk individuals, eight antibody-negative low-risk subjects, two subjects with acute retroviral disease, 35 asymptomatic seropositive subjects (59 samples) with CD4 counts > 400/mm3, 31 patients (46 samples) with AIDS-related complex (ARC), 30 patients (40 specimens) with AIDS, and six seropositive patients with unknown clinical status. Amplicor demonstrated a specificity of 100% and a sensitivity of 98.7%. Of the two false-negative samples with Amplicor, one was negative for beta-globin amplification, whereas a dilution of the other sample turned positive for HIV-1. Inhibitors of Taq polymerase were thus believed to be responsible for the negative results. This study demonstrates that commercialized nonisotopic PCR assays reach adequate levels of sensitivity and specificity for diagnosis of HIV-1 infection and could be considered in clinical situations in which serology is not helpful.

Retention and expression of the left end subfragment of the herpes simplex virus type 2 BglII N DNA fragment do not correlate with tumorigenic conversion of NIH 3T3 cells.

Cotransfection experiments have been carried out using recombinant plasmids pAG60, conferring resistance to antibiotic G418, and pXho3 which contains the left end subfragment (map coordinates 0.583 to 0.596) of the transforming herpes simplex virus type 2 BglII N DNA fragment and encodes the 36K polypeptide associated with the viral ribonucleotide reductase activity. Several NIH 3T3 cell clones resistant to G418 and having morphological changes commonly observed for transformed NIH 3T3 cells were isolated and examined for the presence and stable retention of the viral sequences. Seven of the clones that retained the transfected viral sequences were analysed for the expression of the 36K polypeptide and the tumorigenic phenotype. The results gathered from these studies show that neither the retention of the viral DNA nor the expression of the 36K polypeptide correlated with tumorigenic conversion of these cells.

Neuronal expression of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 env proteins in transgenic mice: distribution in the central nervous system and pathological alterations.

It is now well documented that human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) induces encephalopathy in patients with AIDS. In vitro studies have implicated the envelope protein (gp120) as a factor which causes neuronal death. To better evaluate the role and elucidate the mechanisms of gp120 neurotoxicity, we have developed transgenic mice carrying a segment of the HIV-1 genome that expresses the viral gp160 protein under the control of the human neurofilament light gene promoter. In two separate lines of transgenic mice, the Env protein was found to be expressed in several nuclei of the brain stem and in the anterior horns of the spinal cord. The two lines showed identical patterns of Env expression. Neuropathological evaluation revealed numerous abnormal dendritic swellings in the immunostained motor neuron structures. Large and numerous neuritic swellings were also prominent in the nucleus gracilis and in the gracilis and cuneate fascicles. In addition, reactive astrocytosis was observed in several immunoreactive areas of the central nervous system. These transgenic mice offer a unique model to further investigate the role of HIV-1 Env protein in neuronal toxicity and to help elucidate the mechanisms that are involved.

Evaluation of infection with human immunodeficiency virus type 1 by using nonisotopic solution hybridization for detection of polymerase chain reaction-amplified proviral DNA.

A convenient assay combining solution hybridization and enzyme immunoassay for DNA-RNA hybrids (polymerase chain reaction-enzyme immunoassay [PCR-EIA]) was developed to detect human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) provirus amplified by the PCR and was compared with oligomer hybridization with 32P-labeled SK19. In PCR-EIA, a fragment of the HIV-1 gag gene from peripheral blood mononuclear cells was first amplified with primer pair SK38/SK39 or O1/O2. PCR-amplified material was reacted in solution with a biotinylated RNA probe. Biotinylated hybrids were measured in a microtiter-plate EIA with antibiotin antibody and a beta-D-galactosidase-conjugated monoclonal antibody to DNA-RNA hybrids. Ten copies of HIV-1 DNA could be detected by PCR-EIA by using two different sets of primers. HIV-1 DNA was detected in 104 of 108 peripheral blood mononuclear cell samples by using SK38/39 and oligomer hybridization, in 104 of 108 samples by using SK38/SK39 and PCR-EIA, and in 104 of 108 samples by using O1/O2 and PCR-EIA. HIV-1 provirus was detected in 107 of 108 samples by using a combination of two sets of primers. One sample from a seropositive patient was negative in all three PCR assays, and six samples gave discordant results between primer pairs. Six of the latter samples scored negative in a PCR for beta-globin but became positive when the sample was diluted before amplification. When applied to clinical samples, PCR-EIA generated results similar to those of an isotopic assay for detection of amplified DNA.