Can Artificial Intelligence Improve the Readability of Patient Education Materials?

BACKGROUND: The recommended readability of online health education materials is at or below the sixth- to eighth-grade level. Nevertheless, more than a decade of research has demonstrated that most online education materials pertaining to orthopaedic surgery do not meet these recommendations. The repeated evidence of this limited progress underscores that unaddressed barriers exist to improving readability, such as the added time and cost associated with writing easily readable materials that cover complex topics. Freely available artificial intelligence (AI) platforms might facilitate the conversion of patient-education materials at scale, but to our knowledge, this has not been evaluated in orthopaedic surgery. QUESTIONS/PURPOSES: (1) Can a freely available AI dialogue platform rewrite orthopaedic patient education materials to reduce the required reading skill level from the high-school level to the sixth-grade level (which is approximately the median reading level in the United States)? (2) Were the converted materials accurate, and did they retain sufficient content detail to be informative as education materials for patients? METHODS: Descriptions of lumbar disc herniation, scoliosis, and spinal stenosis, as well as TKA and THA, were identified from educational materials published online by orthopaedic surgery specialty organizations and leading orthopaedic institutions. The descriptions were entered into an AI dialogue platform with the prompt "translate to fifth-grade reading level" to convert each group of text at or below the sixth-grade reading level. The fifth-grade reading level was selected to account for potential variation in how readability is defined by the AI platform, given that there are several widely used preexisting methods for defining readability levels. The Flesch Reading Ease score and Flesch-Kincaid grade level were determined for each description before and after AI conversion. The time to convert was also recorded. Each education material and its respective conversion was reviewed for factual inaccuracies, and each conversion was reviewed for its retention of sufficient detail for intended use as a patient education document. RESULTS: As presented to the public, the current descriptions of herniated lumbar disc, scoliosis, and stenosis had median (range) Flesch-Kincaid grade levels of 9.5 (9.1 to 10.5), 12.6 (10.8 to 15), and 10.9 (8 to 13.6), respectively. After conversion by the AI dialogue platform, the median Flesch-Kincaid grade level scores for herniated lumbar disc, scoliosis, and stenosis were 5.0 (3.3 to 8.2), 5.6 (4.1 to 7.3), and 6.9 (5 to 7.8), respectively. Similarly, descriptions of TKA and THA improved from 12.0 (11.2 to 13.5) to 6.3 (5.8 to 7.6) and from 11.6 (9.5 to 12.6) to 6.1 (5.4 to 7.1), respectively. The Flesch Reading Ease scores followed a similar trend. Seconds per sentence conversion was median 4.5 (3.3 to 4.9) and 4.5 (3.5 to 4.8) for spine conditions and arthroplasty, respectively. Evaluation of the materials that were converted for ease of reading still provided a sufficient level of nuance for patient education, and no factual errors or inaccuracies were identified. CONCLUSION: We found that a freely available AI dialogue platform can improve the reading accessibility of orthopaedic surgery online patient education materials to recommended levels quickly and effectively. Professional organizations and practices should determine whether their patient education materials exceed current recommended reading levels by using widely available measurement tools, and then apply an AI dialogue platform to facilitate converting their materials to more accessible levels if needed. Additional research is needed to determine whether this technology can be applied to additional materials meant to inform patients, such as surgical consent documents or postoperative instructions, and whether the methods presented here are applicable to non-English language materials.

Saliva microRNA Biomarkers of Cumulative Concussion.

Recurrent concussions increase risk for persistent post-concussion symptoms, and may lead to chronic neurocognitive deficits. Little is known about the molecular pathways that contribute to persistent concussion symptoms. We hypothesized that salivary measurement of microribonucleic acids (miRNAs), a class of epitranscriptional molecules implicated in concussion pathophysiology, would provide insights about the molecular cascade resulting from recurrent concussions. This hypothesis was tested in a case-control study involving 13 former professional football athletes with a history of recurrent concussion, and 18 age/sex-matched peers. Molecules of interest were further validated in a cross-sectional study of 310 younger individuals with a history of no concussion (n = 230), a single concussion (n = 56), or recurrent concussions (n = 24). There was no difference in neurocognitive performance between the former professional athletes and their peers, or among younger individuals with varying concussion exposures. However, younger individuals without prior concussion outperformed peers with prior concussion on three balance assessments. Twenty salivary miRNAs differed (adj. p < 0.05) between former professional athletes and their peers. Two of these (miR-28-3p and miR-339-3p) demonstrated relationships (p < 0.05) with the number of prior concussions reported by younger individuals. miR-28-3p and miR-339-5p may play a role in the pathophysiologic mechanism involved in cumulative concussion effects.

Delaminated Patellar Tendon Rupture in a Pediatric Patient: A Case Report.

CASE: We present a 12-year-old boy with partial delamination of the patellar tendon in the coronal plane and bipolar avulsion fracture of the tibial tubercle and patella after a planting injury while skateboarding. Pediatric patellar tendon rupture with associated bipolar avulsion fractures is rare. Furthermore, to the best of our knowledge, a delamination injury pattern of the patellar tendon has not been described. CONCLUSION: This type of extensor mechanism injury has not been reported in the literature. Repair with Krackow sutures and suture-bone tunnel technique, with consideration of the proximal tibial physis, is a safe and effective way to fix this unique pathology.

Refinement of saliva microRNA biomarkers for sports-related concussion.

BACKGROUND: Recognizing sport-related concussion (SRC) is challenging and relies heavily on subjective symptom reports. An objective, biological marker could improve recognition and understanding of SRC. There is emerging evidence that salivary micro-ribonucleic acids (miRNAs) may serve as biomarkers of concussion; however, it remains unclear whether concussion-related miRNAs are impacted by exercise. We sought to determine whether 40 miRNAs previously implicated in concussion pathophysiology were affected by participation in a variety of contact and non-contact sports. Our goal was to refine a miRNA-based tool capable of identifying athletes with SRC without the confounding effects of exercise. METHODS: This case-control study harmonized data from concussed and non-concussed athletes recruited across 10 sites. Levels of salivary miRNAs within 455 samples from 314 individuals were measured with RNA sequencing. Within-subjects testing was used to identify and exclude miRNAs that changed with either (a) a single episode of exercise (166 samples from 83 individuals) or (b) season-long participation in contact sports (212 samples from 106 individuals). The miRNAs that were not impacted by exercise were interrogated for SRC diagnostic utility using logistic regression (172 samples from 75 concussed and 97 non-concussed individuals). RESULTS: Two miRNAs (miR-532-5p and miR-182-5p) decreased (adjusted p < 0.05) after a single episode of exercise, and 1 miRNA (miR-4510) increased only after contact sports participation. Twenty-three miRNAs changed at the end of a contact sports season. Two of these miRNAs (miR-26b-3p and miR-29c-3p) were associated (R > 0.50; adjusted p < 0.05) with the number of head impacts sustained in a single football practice. Among the 15 miRNAs not confounded by exercise or season-long contact sports participation, 11 demonstrated a significant difference (adjusted p < 0.05) between concussed and non-concussed participants, and 6 displayed moderate ability (area under curve > 0.70) to identify concussion. A single ratio (miR-27a-5p/miR-30a-3p) displayed the highest accuracy (AUC = 0.810, sensitivity = 82.4%, specificity = 73.3%) for differentiating concussed and non-concussed participants. Accuracy did not differ between participants with SRC and non-SRC (z = 0.5, p = 0.60). CONCLUSION: Salivary miRNA levels may accurately identify SRC when not confounded by exercise. Refinement of this approach in a large cohort of athletes could eventually lead to a non-invasive, sideline adjunct for SRC assessment.

Venous Thromboembolism Chemoprophylaxis in Knee Arthroscopy: A Break-Even Analysis of Cost.

BACKGROUND: Symptomatic venous thromboembolism (VTE) is a serious and costly complication after knee arthroscopy. There continues to be debate regarding the use of VTE prophylaxis after knee arthroscopy, and minimal research has explored its cost-effectiveness. HYPOTHESIS: Both aspirin and enoxaparin would be cost-effective in preventing symptomatic VTE. STUDY DESIGN: Economic and decision analysis; Level of evidence, 3. METHODS: The literature was searched and the TriNetX research database was queried to determine a range of initial rates of VTE. An open-access retail database was used to determine the mean retail price for aspirin (325 mg) and enoxaparin (30 mg and 40 mg). Our institutional records were used to determine the cost of treating VTE. A "break-even" analysis was then performed to determine the absolute risk reduction necessary to make these drugs cost-effective. This value was then used to calculate the number of patients who would need to be treated (NNT) to prevent a single VTE while still breaking even on cost. RESULTS: The cost of treating VTE was $9407 (US Dollars). Aspirin (325 mg), enoxaparin (30 mg), and enoxaparin (40 mg) were found to cost $1.86, $188.72, and $99.99, respectively. The low, TriNetX, and high rates of VTE were 0.34%, 0.86%, and 10.9%, respectively. Aspirin was cost-effective at all 3 rates if the initial rate decreased by 0.02% (NNT = 5058). Both formulations of enoxaparin were cost-effective at the high initial rate if they decreased by 2.01% (NNT = 50) and 1.06% (NNT = 94), respectively. However, at the low and TriNetX rates, the 2 doses of enoxaparin were not cost-effective because their final break-even rate exceeded the initial VTE rate. CONCLUSION: Aspirin and, in some cases, enoxaparin are cost-effective treatments for VTE prophylaxis after knee arthroscopy.

Effect of glenoid perforation during total shoulder arthroplasty on glenoid component cement fixation and suprascapular nerve.

BACKGROUND: Arthritic glenoids are susceptible to vault perforation during total shoulder arthroplasty. We investigated the effects of glenoid perforation and subsequent cement extrusion on the suprascapular nerve and on the glenoid cement infiltration. METHODS: Total shoulder arthroplasty using three-pegged glenoid components were performed on 10 cadaveric shoulders assigned to two groups (perforation vs. control). In perforation group, the glenoids were reamed eccentrically and intentionally perforated medially through the central peg hole, whereas control group received perpendicular reaming with no perforation. Bone cement was applied to each peg. Spatial relationship between the extruded cement and the suprascapular nerve, and the amount of cement infiltration into the cancellous bone were evaluated. RESULTS: In perforation group, five specimens were perforated anteriorly, and two posteriorly. In the two posteriorly perforated specimens, the suprascapular nerve was in direct contact with extruded cement at the spinoglenoid notch. Perforation group showed significantly less cement infiltration into the cancellous bone than control group (p = 0.008). CONCLUSIONS: Glenoid perforation decreases the volume of cement infiltration into the cancellous bone potentially compromising glenoid component fixation. Glenoid perforation tends to occur anteriorly rather than posteriorly in arthritic glenoids; however, if perforation occurs posteriorly, the suprascapular nerve is at immediate risk from the extruded cement.Level of evidence: Basic science study.

Socioeconomic Status Is Associated With the Risk of Girdlestone Resection Arthroplasty After Periprosthetic Infection of the Hip.

INTRODUCTION: Girdlestone resection arthroplasty (GRA) is a radical but sometimes necessary treatment of periprosthetic joint infection (PJI) of the hip. The purpose of this of this study was to identify the independent risk factors for GRA after PJI of the hip. METHODS: This is a retrospective, cross-sectional analysis of the National (Nationwide) Inpatient Sample from 2010 to 2014. The International Classification of Diseases, 9th Revision, Clinical Modification (ICD-9-CM) was used to identify 27,404 patients with PJI of the hip, including 889 patients who underwent GRA (ICD-9-CM 80.05). A multivariate model was created to examine the association between GRA and patient characteristics such as age, sex, race, primary payer, median household income, and location and teaching status of the hospital where the procedure was performed. Furthermore, the model controlled for patient comorbidities, including diabetes, anemias, hypertension, congestive heart failure, chronic pulmonary disease, peripheral vascular disease, and drug abuse. RESULTS: The strongest independent risk factor for GRA was Medicare insurance (odds ratio [OR], 1.859, 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.500 to 2.304). Medicaid insurance was also associated with GRA (OR, 1.662, CI, 1.243 to 2.223). Compared with the wealthiest quartile for household income, patients in the poorest quartile (OR, 1.299, CI, 1.046 to 1.614) and second poorest quartile (OR, 1.269, CI, 1.027 to 1.567) were significantly more likely to have a GRA. Furthermore, patients older than 80 years old were at a higher risk of GRA than all other age groups (P < 0.05). No statistical differences were seen regarding patient race or sex. CONCLUSIONS: This study demonstrates that poorer patients, patients with government health insurance plans, and elderly patients are each at independently heightened risk of undergoing a GRA for the treatment of PJI of the hip. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: III, retrospective cohort study.

Themes in Superhero-Based Television Shows: An Opportunity for the Development of Children and Adolescents Through Co-Viewing and Active Mediation.

The depiction of superheroes and comic book characters in television shows has become incredibly popular. The objective of this study was to determine the positive and negative themes depicted in a select number of superhero-based television shows. A total of 49 episodes from 10 superhero-based television shows were analyzed by four independent reviewers. The average number of positive and negative themes was 18.8 and 36.9 mean events per hour, respectively, for all included episodes. The most common positive themes in our sample were associated with service, teamwork, and encouragement, and the most common negative themes were associated with violence, bullying, and alcohol use. Although exposure to positive themes depicted in superhero-based television shows may be beneficial to the development of children and adolescents, pediatric health care providers should counsel families in an attempt to limit their exposure to violence and other negative themes depicted in this genre of television shows.

Diagnosing mild traumatic brain injury using saliva RNA compared to cognitive and balance testing.

BACKGROUND: Early, accurate diagnosis of mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI) can improve clinical outcomes for patients, but mTBI remains difficult to diagnose because of reliance on subjective symptom reports. An objective biomarker could increase diagnostic accuracy and improve clinical outcomes. The aim of this study was to assess the ability of salivary noncoding RNA (ncRNA) to serve as a diagnostic adjunct to current clinical tools. We hypothesized that saliva ncRNA levels would demonstrate comparable accuracy for identifying mTBI as measures of symptom burden, neurocognition, and balance. METHODS: This case-control study involved 538 individuals. Participants included 251 individuals with mTBI, enrolled ≤14 days postinjury, from 11 clinical sites. Saliva samples (n = 679) were collected at five time points (≤3, 4-7, 8-14, 15-30, and 31-60 days post-mTBI). Levels of ncRNAs (microRNAs, small nucleolar RNAs, and piwi-interacting RNAs) were quantified within each sample using RNA sequencing. The first sample from each mTBI participant was compared to saliva samples from 287 controls. Samples were divided into testing (n = 430; mTBI = 201 and control = 239) and training sets (n = 108; mTBI = 50 and control = 58). The test set was used to identify ncRNA diagnostic candidates and create a diagnostic model. Model accuracy was assessed in the naïve test set. RESULTS: A model utilizing seven ncRNA ratios, along with participant age and chronic headache status, differentiated mTBI and control participants with a cross-validated area under the curve (AUC) of .857 in the training set (95% CI, .816-.903) and .823 in the naïve test set. In a subset of participants (n = 321; mTBI = 176 and control = 145) assessed for symptom burden (Post-Concussion Symptom Scale), as well as neurocognition and balance (ClearEdge System), these clinical measures yielded cross-validated AUC of .835 (95% CI, .782-.880) and .853 (95% CI, .803-.899), respectively. A model employing symptom burden and four neurocognitive measures identified mTBI participants with similar AUC (.888; CI, .845-.925) as symptom burden and four ncRNAs (.932; 95% CI, .890-.965). CONCLUSION: Salivary ncRNA levels represent a noninvasive, biologic measure that can aid objective, accurate diagnosis of mTBI.