Evaluation of reticuloruminal temperature for the prediction of clinical mastitis in dairy cows challenged with Streptococcus uberis.

Automated monitoring devices have become increasingly utilized in the dairy industry, especially for monitoring or predicting disease status. While multiple automated monitoring devices have been developed for the prediction of clinical mastitis (CM), limitations in performance or applicability remain. The aims of this study were to (1) detect variations in reticuloruminal temperature (RRT) relative to an experimental intramammary challenge with Streptococcus uberis and (2) evaluate alerts generated automatically based on variation in RRT to predict initial signs of CM in the challenged cows based on severity of clinical signs and the concentration of bacteria (cfu/mL) in the infected quarter separately. Clinically healthy Holstein cows without a history of CM in the 60 d before the experiment (n = 37, parity 1 to 5, ≥120 d in milk) were included if they were microbiologically negative and had a somatic cell count under 200,000 cells/mL based on screening of quarter milk samples 1 wk before challenge. Each cow received an intra-reticuloruminal automated monitoring device before the trial and was challenged with 2,000 cfu of Strep. uberis 0140J in 1 rear quarter. Based on interrupted time series analysis, intramammary challenge with Strep. uberis increased RRT by 0.54°C [95% confidence interval (CI): 0.41, 0.66] at 24 h after the challenge, which remained elevated until the end of the study. Alerts based on RRT correctly classified 78.3% (95% CI: 65.8, 87.9) of first occurrences of CM at least 24 h in advance, with a sensitivity of 70.0% (95% CI: 50.6, 85.3) and a specificity of 86.7% (95% CI: 69.3, 96.2). The accuracy of CM for a given severity score was 90.9% (95% CI: 70.8, 98.9) for mild cases, 85.2% (95% CI: 72.9, 93.4) for moderate cases, and 92.9% (95% CI: 66.1, 99.8) for severe cases. Test characteristics of the RRT alerts to predict initial signs of CM improved substantially after bacterial count in the challenged quarter reached 5.0 log10 cfu/mL, reaching a sensitivity of 73.5% (95% CI: 55.6, 87.1) and a specificity of 87.5% (95% CI: 71.0, 96.5). Overall, the results of this study indicated that RRT was affected by the intramammary challenge with Strep. uberis and the RRT-generated alerts had similar accuracy as reported for other sensors and algorithms. Further research that includes natural infections with other pathogens as well as different variations in RRT to determine CM status is warranted.

Oro-Naso-Sino-Orbital-Cutaneous Fistula From Prolonged Cocaine Use.

Presentation We present the case of a 48-year-old man with nasal cellulitis and subsequent oro-naso-sino-orbital-cutaneous fistula from prolonged cocaine use. Diagnosis Initial laboratory investigations reported a raised white cell count (WBC) and C-Reactive Protein (CRP) and subsequently a positive atypical anti-neutrophil cytoplasm antibodies (ANCA) and positive anti-proteinase (PR3). Perihilar lung nodularity on chest imaging raised the possibility of a systemic autoimmune response. His urinalysis was positive for cocaine. Treatment He was commenced on Augmentin, Amphotericin B and Prednisolone. An obturator was created to manage the oro-nasal fistula. A subsequent naso-cutaneous defect was re-approximated. Daily nasal saline douche and abstinence of cocaine were recommended. Discussion Cocaine use in the community is rising and poses a challenge to multiple facets of our health care system.

Evaluating the effectiveness of an integrated tick management approach on multiple pathogen infection in Ixodes scapularis questing nymphs and larvae parasitizing white-footed mice.

We investigated the effectiveness of integrated tick management (ITM) approaches in reducing the burden of infection with Borrelia burgdorferi, Babesia microti, and Anaplasma phagocytophilum in Ixodes scapularis. We found a 52% reduction in encountering a questing nymph in the Metarhizium anisopliae (Met52) and fipronil rodent bait box treatment combination as well as a 51% reduction in the combined white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) removal, Met52, and fipronil rodent bait box treatment compared to the control treatment. The Met52 and fipronil rodent bait box treatment combination reduced the encounter potential with a questing nymph infected with any pathogen by 53%. Compared to the control treatment, the odds of collecting a parasitizing I. scapularis infected with any pathogen from a white-footed mouse (Peromyscus leucopus) was reduced by 90% in the combined deer removal, Met52, and fipronil rodent bait box treatment and by 93% in the Met52 and fipronil rodent bait box treatment combination. Our study highlights the utility of these ITM measures in reducing both the abundance of juvenile I. scapularis and infection with the aforementioned pathogens.

Field evaluation of a novel oral reservoir-targeted vaccine against Borrelia burgdorferi utilizing an inactivated whole-cell bacterial antigen expression vehicle.

Blacklegged ticks (Ixodes scapularis) are the principal vector for Borrelia burgdorferi, among other infectious agents, in the northeastern, mid-Atlantic, and upper midwestern USA. White-footed mice (Peromyscus leucopus) are the primary and most competent reservoir host of B. burgdorferi in the Northeast. Live reservoir-targeted vaccines (RTVs) to limit enzootic transmission of B. burgdorferi were previously developed and successfully evaluated in laboratory and controlled field trials. A novel, inactivated RTV was developed to minimize regulatory and market challenges facing previous RTVs based on live bacterial or viral vehicles. Thirty-two residential properties in Redding, Connecticut, participated in a field trial of an orally delivered, inactivated RTV efficacy study (2015-2016). During the two-year vaccination period, a significant decrease in the percentage of B. burgdorferi-infected I. scapularis larvae parasitizing P. leucopus was observed, as was a significant reduction in the percentage of infected P. leucopus on RTV-treated properties when compared to control properties. This novel inactivated RTV was effective in reducing numbers of B. burgdorferi-infected I. scapularis and B. burgdorferi-infected P. leucopus on properties where it was distributed.

Continuous epidural infusion anesthesia and analgesia in gynecologic oncology patients: less pain, more gain?

OBJECTIVE: There is a lack of consistent data regarding gynecologic oncology (GO) patients and the use of neuraxial anesthesia for post-operative pain management. Our objective was to compare the use of continuous epidural infusion (CEI) as part of post-operative pain management to more traditional management schemes. METHODS: GO patients undergoing laparotomy from July 1st, 2011 through July 31st, 2012 were identified. Patient demographic data and peri-operative details were abstracted from the medical record. The primary outcome was a mean patient visual analog pain score. Secondary outcomes included length of stay, post-operative urinary tract infection (UTI) and venous thromboembolic (VTE) events. RESULTS: There were 237 laparotomies during the study time period. Fifty-six women had CEI for post-operative pain management and 181 did not. Patients with CEI had lower pain scores on POD #0 (3.8 vs 5.3, p < 0.01), #1 (2.6 vs 4.0, p < 0.01) and #2 (2.5 vs 3.5, p < 0.01) compared to women without CEI. There was no difference in the length of stay between those with and without CEI (103 vs 94 h, p = 0.32). Women with CEI did have a longer length of urinary catheterization (56 vs 26 h, p = 0.01) but not an increased rate of UTI (5.5% vs 1.8%, p = 0.24). There was a higher rate of post-operative VTE events among women with CEI (8.9% vs 1.7%, p = 0.02). CONCLUSIONS: In this small series, GO patients undergoing laparotomy had improved post-operative pain control when their analgesia regimen included CEI. However, the higher rate of VTE events among CEI users is concerning and merits further investigation.

Effectiveness of Garlic for the Control of Ixodes scapularis (Acari: Ixodidae) on Residential Properties in Western Connecticut.

We conducted field trials to evaluate the ability of a garlic juice-based product to control or suppress nymphal activity of the blacklegged tick, Ixodes scapularis Say, at residential properties in Connecticut in 2009, 2010, and 2011. The product was applied at a rate of 0.2 g AI/m2. Percent control of nymphal densities achieved by the spray treatment at 6, 11, and 18 d postspray for the 3 yr was 37.0, 59.0, and 47.4%, respectively. Differences between nymphal densities were greatest during the first post-spray sampling period. While garlic may require multiple applications for the suppression of tick activity, this product could provide a minimal-risk option for the short-term control of nymphal I. scapularis in the residential landscape.

Mechanistic relationships between hepatic genotoxicity and carcinogenicity in male B6C3F1 mice treated with polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon mixtures.

The genotoxicity of a complex mixture [neutral fraction (NF)] from a wood preserving waste and reconstituted mixture (RM) mimicking the NF with seven major polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and benzo(a)pyrene (BaP) was investigated by determining DNA adducts and tumor incidence in male B6C3F1 mice exposed to three different doses of the chemical mixtures. The peak values of DNA adducts were observed after 24 h, and the highest levels of PAH-DNA adducts were exhibited in mice administered NF + BaP, and the highest tumor incidence and mortality were also observed in this group. DNA adduct levels after 1, 7, or 21 days were significantly correlated with animal mortality and incidence of total tumors including liver, lung, and forestomach. However, only hepatic DNA adducts after 7 days significantly correlated with liver tumor incidence. Most proteins involved in DNA repair including ATM, pATR, Chk1, pChk1, DNA PKcs, XRCC1, FANCD2, Ku80, Mre11, and Brca2 were significantly lower in liver tumor tissue compared to non-tumor tissue. Expressions of proteins involved in apoptosis and cell cycle regulation were also significantly different in tumor versus non-tumor tissues, and it is possible that PAH-induced changes in these gene products are important for tumor development and growth.

Type 2 diabetes continuing medical education for general practitioners: what works? A systematic review.

AIMS: To perform a systematic review of studies that have assessed the effectiveness of interventions designed to improve healthcare professionals' care of patients with diabetes and to assess the effects of educational interventions targeted at general practitioners' diabetes management. METHODS: A computer search was conducted using the Cochrane Library, PubMed, Ovid MEDLINE, Scopus, EMBASE, Informit, Google scholar and ERIC from the earliest date of each database up until 2013. A supplementary review of reference lists from each article obtained was also carried out. Measured changes in general practitioners' satisfaction, knowledge, practice behaviours and patient outcomes were recorded. RESULTS: Thirteen out of 1255 studies met the eligibility criteria, but none was specifically conducted in rural or remote areas. Ten studies were randomized trials. Fewer than half of the studies (5/13, 38.5%) reported a significant improvement in at least one of the following outcome categories: satisfaction with the programme, knowledge and practice behaviour. There was little evidence of the impact of general practitioner educational interventions on patient outcomes. Of the five studies that examined patient outcomes, only one reported a positive impact: a reduction in patient HbA1c levels. CONCLUSIONS: Few studies examined the effectiveness of general practitioner Type 2 diabetes education in improving general practitioner satisfaction, knowledge, practices and/or patient outcomes. Evidence to support the effectiveness of education is partial and weak. To determine effective strategies for general practitioner education related to Type 2 diabetes, further well designed studies, accompanied by valid and reliable evaluation methods, are needed.

Expansion of zoonotic babesiosis and reported human cases, Connecticut, 2001-2010.

To document the expansion of human babesiosis in Connecticut, we analyzed reservoir host sera for seroreactivity to Babesia microti Franca and reviewed Connecticut human surveillance case data collected during 2001-2010. Sera from white-footed mice, Peromyscus leucopus Rafinesque, from 10 towns in 5 counties, collected at 4-7-yr periods between 2001 and 2010, were tested for total immunoglobulins. The prevalence of B. microti-positive mice was compared with confirmed and probable human case reports tabulated by the Connecticut Department of Public Health. The highest babesiosis and rodent seroprevalence rates were in New London County, where this protozoan disease was first documented in the state. However, human cases and reservoir host infection increased significantly from 2001-2005 to 2005-2010 and in other parts of the state. Clinicians should be aware that the disease is not confined to long-established endemic areas of the state.

The relationship between deer density, tick abundance, and human cases of Lyme disease in a residential community.

White-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus Zimmerman), serve as the primary host for the adult blacklegged tick (Ixodes scapularis Say), the vector for Lyme disease, human babesiosis, and human granulocytic anaplasmosis. Our objective was to evaluate the degree of association between deer density, tick abundance, and human cases of Lyme disease in one Connecticut community over a 13-yr period. We surveyed 90-98% of all permanent residents in the community six times from 1995 to 2008 to document resident's exposure to tick-related disease and frequency and abundance of deer observations. After hunts were initiated, number and frequency of deer observations in the community were greatly reduced as were resident-reported cases of Lyme disease. Number of resident-reported cases of Lyme disease per 100 households was strongly correlated to deer density in the community. Reducing deer density to 5.1 deer per square kilometer resulted in a 76% reduction in tick abundance, 70% reduction in the entomological risk index, and 80% reduction in resident-reported cases of Lyme disease in the community from before to after a hunt was initiated.

Management of type 2 diabetes: Australian rural and remote general practitioners' knowledge, attitudes, and practices.

BACKGROUND: The gap between current and evidence-based best practice management of chronic diseases in Australian general practice is widely acknowledged. This study seeks to explore some of the factors underpinning this gap in relation to type 2 diabetes management in rural and remote general practice settings. METHODS: A cross-sectional survey of 854 general practitioners (GPs) currently practising in rural and remote Australian communities with populations between 10 000 and 30 000. RESULTS: A total of 209 completed surveys were returned for an overall response rate of 24.5%. GPs reported on their education preferences, knowledge, attitudes and practices relating to type 2 diabetes. GPs indicated a strong preference for face-to-face education options such as conferences and seminars (75.2%). Whilst structured online education activities were less utilised than face-to-face options, GPs reported a desire to undertake more of their education online in the future. Survey findings revealed gaps in GP knowledge around the medical management of diabetes. The most prevalent self-reported learning needs related to pharmacological management (n=87, (45.5%)). Correspondingly, in the GP knowledge test, GPs received the lowest mean score for the section on medical management. GPs also reported having the least confidence in providing effective insulin treatment, compared with other aspects of diabetes management. GPs identified an array of difficulties encountered in providing best practice diabetes care, which were classified into three main categories: GP clinical management problems, patient-related challenges and health system-related difficulties. CONCLUSIONS: This national survey highlights a number of barriers to GP provision of best practice diabetes care in rural and remote Australia. Despite the availability of education programs and clinical practice guidelines, GPs revealed deficits in knowledge and confidence in type 2 diabetes management. GPs identified numerous challenges to effective patient care, some but not all of which can be addressed through continuing professional development. GP preferences for continuing medical education and information may inform future activities, to specifically address the needs of GPs in rural and remote locations.

Investigation of HCAR2 antagonists as a potential strategy to modulate bovine leukocytes.

BACKGROUND: Dairy cows experiencing ketosis after calving suffer greater disease incidence and are at greater risk of leaving the herd. In vitro administration of beta-hydroxybutyric acid (BHBA; the primary blood ketone) has inhibitory effects on the function of bovine leukocytes. BHBA is a ligand of HCAR2 and the activation of these receptors promotes an anti-inflammatory response which may be related with immunosuppression observed in transition dairy cattle. The objective of this study was to identify and test antagonists for HCAR2 in bovine immune cells cultured with BHBA. RESULTS: We observed expression of HCAR2 at the protein level within lymphocytes, monocytes, and granulocytes. The proportion of cells expressing HCAR2 tended to be greater in mid-lactation compared to early lactation cows; the increase was a result of increased proportion of T and B cells expressing HCAR2. Stimulation of HCAR2 with niacin or BHBA promoted Ca2+ mobilization in neutrophils and mononuclear cells. Mononuclear cells treated with BHBA had diminished intracellular Ca2+ responses when HCAR2 was knocked down by siRNA silencing, indicating Ca2+ mobilization was mediated by HCAR2 signaling. Two candidate antagonists for HCAR2, synthesized from niacin (NA-1 and NA-5), were tested; monocytes and neutrophils pre-treated with NA-1 and NA-5 had reduced Ca2+ mobilization after incubation with BHBA. Furthermore, NA-5 but not NA-1 prevented BHBA-associated reductions in cyclic AMP. CONCLUSIONS: We demonstrated that HCAR2 is present on bovine leukocytes and has greater expression later in lactation. We confirmed that BHBA and niacin derived HCAR2 antagonists alter bovine leukocyte activity. Our results demonstrate that both BHBA and niacin affect bovine leukocyte Ca2+ mobilization in a HCAR2-dependent manner.

A novel technique for skull base reconstruction in craniofacial fibrous dysplasia surgery using three-dimensional printing and a dental alginate mold: illustrative case.

BACKGROUND: Fibrous dysplasia is a rare and benign skeletal lesion characterized by fibrous tissue proliferation due to an abnormal osteogenesis replacing normal bone. OBSERVATIONS: An 18-year-old male with fibrous dysplasia of the left sphenoid, ethmoid, orbit, and frontal bones was managed with excision and skull base reconstruction. After complete removal of the tumor, skull base reconstruction was commenced by making a reverse temporalis flap and placing it over the opened paranasal sinuses for a robust vascularized graft, followed by an abdominal fat graft, and then a pedicled pericranal flap was added to complete the multilayer onlay graft. To recreate the skull base, a mirror image of the contralateral skull base was constructed using three-dimensional (3D) printing, and the 3D-printed model was sterilized prior to the surgery. Intraoperatively, the model was then pressed onto dental alginate gel to make a negative mold. This was used to make the definitive flap using polymethylmethacrylate. Temporoplasty was also performed using polymethylmethacrylate to fill the defect left by the temporalis graft. The patient recovered well following the procedure. LESSONS: Appropriate, personalized skull base reconstruction techniques can be successfully done with 3D printing using alternative low-cost materials and implements, especially following resection of cases like craniofacial fibrous dysplasia. https://thejns.org/doi/10.3171/CASE24262.

Comparison of plain vertebral X-ray and dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry for the identification of older women for fracture prevention in primary care.

BACKGROUND: Recently, the dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA) diagnostic cut-off (T-score) for Australian Pharmaceutical Benefits Scheme (PBS) supported primary fracture prevention therapy with alendronate for older women (>70 years) has been changed from -3.0 to -2.5. AIM: To examine the impact of the expanded criteria for PBS-supported fracture prevention therapy in older women on case finding and cost. METHODS: One thousand, nine hundred and eighty-three women, median age 76 years, not previously known to have low bone mineral density by DXA or a vertebral fracture underwent DXA scanning and a thoracolumbar X-ray. A woman was considered eligible for fracture prevention therapy if she had a T-score ≤-2.5 at the femoral neck and/or the lumbar vertebrae (two to four) or at least one vertebral fracture of ≥20% deformity. RESULTS: Seven hundred and forty-six women (37.6%) met the new criteria as a case for PBS-subsidised fracture prevention therapy. Four hundred and thirty-one (21.7%) had a T-score ≤-2.5 on DXA compared with 10.6% (n = 210) with a T-score ≤-3.0. Four hundred and eighty-three (24.4%) had at least one vertebral fracture. Only 8.5% (n = 168) had both a T-score ≤-2.5 and a prevalent vertebral fracture. The cost per case found by DXA equated to $460 compared with $398 for screening by thoracolumbar X-ray. CONCLUSIONS: The use of either DXA or X-ray will identify approximately two-thirds of women aged 70 years and over who would be eligible for fracture prevention. The use of X-ray would identify a marginally larger number of women and at lower financial cost but involve substantially greater radiation exposure.

Orally delivered fipronil-laced bait reduces juvenile blacklegged tick (Ixodes scapularis) burdens on wild white-footed mice (Peromyscus leucopus).

While the topical acaricidal treatment of rodent pathogen reservoirs has been readily explored over the past several decades, oral systemic acaricidal treatment is only recently gaining traction as an alternative approach to the management of ticks and tick-borne pathogens. Recent laboratory tests have shown promise in the effectiveness of this systemic strategy against the blacklegged tick (Ixodes scapularis) and a Canadian field evaluation was recently published, but no recent field data from the United States yet exist. With this research, we sought to field deploy a commercially available fipronil-laced bait (Kaput® Flea Control Bait, Scimetrics LLC., Wellington, CO, USA; 0.005% fipronil; Environmental Protection Agency Reg. No. 72500-28), in an alternate use targeting white-footed mice (Peromyscus leucopus) to determine bait acceptance and potential impacts to juvenile I. scapularis burdens. Bait was readily accepted by wild P. leucopus and other rodent reservoirs. An ad libitum distribution strategy as well as placing smaller volumes of fipronil-laced bait within individual Sherman traps both resulted in significant reductions (57-94%) in juvenile I. scapularis burdens as compared to control over two years. The oral delivery of systemic acaricides shows promise in reduction of I. scapularis burdens on P. leucopus and should be further explored to determine effectiveness on host-seeking tick abundances, associated pathogen infection, and potentially incorporated into integrated tick management programs.

Introduction of the ectoparasite Rhipicephalus pulchellus (Ixodida: Ixodidae) into Connecticut with a human traveler from Tanzania, and a review of its importation records into the United States.

Globalization, increased frequency of travel, and a rise in legal and illegal animal trades can introduce exotic ticks into the United States. We herein report the importation of a male Rhipicephalus pulchellus (Gerstäcker) on a human traveler returning to Connecticut from Tanzania, Africa, and review historical importation records of this species into the United States. This common tick is broadly distributed throughout East Africa, from Eritrea to Tanzania, has a wide host range on domestic animals and wildlife, and has been most frequently introduced into the United States on tick-infested wild animal hosts and animal trophies, but documentation of importation on humans has been rare. Archival records at the United States Department of Agriculture's National Veterinary Services Laboratories show R. pulchellus has been introduced into the United States at least 40 times over the last 62 yr. Rhipicephalus pulchellus has been linked to Rickettsia conorii, the agent of boutonneuse fever in humans, Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever orthonairovirus, and Nairobi sheep disease orthonairovirus. Given the potential for this exotic tick to introduce animal or human pathogens, proper surveillance, interception, identification, and reporting of these ticks are vital in protecting human and animal health.

Emotion-behaviour decoupling and experiential pleasure deficits predict negative symptoms and functional outcome in first-episode schizophrenia patients.

BACKGROUND: Emotion-behaviour decoupling refers to the failure to translate emotion into motivated behaviour, and is a putative marker for schizophrenia. The heterogeneity of experiential pleasure and emotion expressivity deficits has been reported in schizophrenia patients. These three constructs are believed to contribute to negative symptoms, but very few studies have examined their predictive ability for clinical and functional outcome of schizophrenia. This study aimed to clarify whether these three constructs influence clinical and functional outcome of schizophrenia. METHOD: At baseline, 127 first-episode schizophrenia patients completed a behavioural paradigm for emotion-behaviour decoupling, and self-report scales for experiential pleasure and emotion expressivity deficits. Cluster-analysis was applied to characterize schizophrenia subgroups based on these three constructs. At end-point (mean follow-up = 5.37 years, SD = 1.03 years), 85 schizophrenia patients were reassessed using the Clinical Assessment Interview for Negative Symptoms (CAINS) and a clinician-rated social functioning scale. RESULTS: Cluster 1 (n = 74) did not show emotion-behaviour decoupling, and had intact experiential pleasure and emotion expressivity. Cluster 2 (n = 29) showed emotion-behaviour decoupling and experiential pleasure deficits. Cluster 3 (n = 24) showed emotion expressivity deficits. At endpoint, the three clusters differed significantly in CAINS MAP factor (p = 0.016) and social functioning (p = 0.019), but not CAINS EXP factor. Specifically, Cluster 2 (n = 18) showed more severe negative symptoms of CAINS MAP factor (p = 0.046) and poorer social functioning (p = 0.022) than Cluster 1 (n = 49). Cluster 3 (n = 18) did not differ from Cluster 1 and Cluster 2 in negative symptoms and social functioning. DISCUSSION: Emotion-behaviour decoupling and experiential pleasure deficits predicted clinical and functional outcome of schizophrenia.

Efficacy and environmental persistence of nootkatone for the control of the blacklegged tick (Acari: Ixodidae) in residential landscapes.

The ability of the plant-derived compound nootkatone to control nymphs of the blacklegged tick, Ixodes scapularis Say, was evaluated at lawn perimeter plots at homes in Lyme disease endemic areas of Connecticut. Three formulations of nootkatone ranging from 0.05 to 0.84% (0.06 - 1.03 g AI/m2) were applied by a hydraulic sprayer from 2008 to 2010. In 2008, the 0.84% emulsifiable nootkatone formulation provided 100% control of I. scapularis through week 1, but declined to 49 and 0% by 2 and 3 wk posttreatment, respectively. A combination of 0.05% nootkatone and entomopathogenic fungus, Metarhizium brunneum Petch F52, resulted in 50% control for the first week posttreatment and no control in subsequent weeks. The 0.84% emulsifiable nootkatone formulation was phytotoxic, although no damage was observed with the 0.05% formulation with Metarhizium. Residual analysis of nootkatone collected on filter paper disks showed that > or = 95% of the emulsified nootkatone for both formulations was lost within 7 d after application. A lignin-encapsulated nootkatone formulation (0.56 and 0.46% in 2009 and 2010, respectively) provided 100% control of I. scapularis for 8 wk in 2009 and, in 2010, 67% control at approximately 1 wk posttreatment with respect to the pretreatment counts, although there was no difference in tick abundance posttreatment. A 0.60% Maillard-reaction encapsulated nootkatone formulation in 2010 provided a similar level of control (62%). Nootkatone in the lignin and Maillard formulations were more persistent than the emulsifiable formulation. Little or no phytotoxicity was observed with the encapsulated formulations. Encapsulating nootkatone reduced phytotoxicity and appeared to reduce environmental loss. While nootkatone can provide effective tick control, further work is needed to refine formulations to address phytotoxicity, yet provide sufficient material to control ticks.