Live imaging of Yersinia translocon formation and immune recognition in host cells.

Yersinia enterocolitica employs a type three secretion system (T3SS) to translocate immunosuppressive effector proteins into host cells. To this end, the T3SS assembles a translocon/pore complex composed of the translocator proteins YopB and YopD in host cell membranes serving as an entry port for the effectors. The translocon is formed in a Yersinia-containing pre-phagosomal compartment that is connected to the extracellular space. As the phagosome matures, the translocon and the membrane damage it causes are recognized by the cell-autonomous immune system. We infected cells in the presence of fluorophore-labeled ALFA-tag-binding nanobodies with a Y. enterocolitica strain expressing YopD labeled with an ALFA-tag. Thereby we could record the integration of YopD into translocons and its intracellular fate in living host cells. YopD was integrated into translocons around 2 min after uptake of the bacteria into a phosphatidylinositol-4,5-bisphosphate enriched pre-phagosomal compartment and remained there for 27 min on average. Damaging of the phagosomal membrane as visualized with recruitment of GFP-tagged galectin-3 occurred in the mean around 14 min after translocon formation. Shortly after recruitment of galectin-3, guanylate-binding protein 1 (GBP-1) was recruited to phagosomes, which was accompanied by a decrease in the signal intensity of translocons, suggesting their degradation or disassembly. In sum, we were able for the first time to film the spatiotemporal dynamics of Yersinia T3SS translocon formation and degradation and its sensing by components of the cell-autonomous immune system.

Development of a Rapid Live SARS-CoV-2 Neutralization Assay Based on a qPCR Readout.

Measuring SARS-CoV-2 neutralizing antibodies after vaccination or natural infection remains a priority in the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic to determine immunity, especially against newly emerging variants. The gold standard for assessing antibody-mediated immunity against SARS-CoV-2 are cell-based live virus neutralization assays. These assays usually take several days, thereby limiting test capacities and the availability of rapid results. In this study, therefore, we developed a faster live virus assay, which detects neutralizing antibodies through the early measurement of antibody-mediated intracellular virus reduction by SARS-CoV-2 qRT-PCR. In our assay, Vero E6 cells are infected with virus isolates preincubated with patient sera and controls. After 24 h, the intracellular viral load is determined by qRT-PCR using a standard curve to calculate percent neutralization. Utilizing COVID-19 convalescent-phase sera, we show that our novel assay generates results with high sensitivity and specificity as we detected antiviral activity for all tested convalescent-phase sera, but no antiviral activity in prepandemic sera. The assay showed a strong correlation with a conventional virus neutralization assay (rS = 0.8910), a receptor-binding domain ELISA (rS = 0.8485), and a surrogate neutralization assay (rS = 0.8373), proving that quantifying intracellular viral RNA can be used to measure seroneutralization. Our assay can be adapted easily to new variants, as demonstrated by our cross-neutralization experiments. This characteristic is key for rapidly determining immunity against newly emerging variants. Taken together, the novel assay presented here reduces turnaround time significantly while making use of a highly standardized and sensitive SARS-CoV-2 qRT-PCR method as a readout.