Readiness of health facilities to deliver non-communicable diseases services in Kenya: a national cross-sectional survey.

BACKGROUND: Non-communicable diseases (NCDs) account for an estimated 71% of all global deaths annually and nearly 80% of these deaths occur in low- and middle-income countries. This study aimed to assess the readiness of existing healthcare systems at different levels of health care in delivering NCDs management and prevention services in Kenya. METHODS: A cross-sectional survey of 258 facilities was conducted between June 2019 and December 2020 using multistage sampling, examining facility readiness based on the availability of indicators such as equipment, diagnostic capacity, medicines and commodities, trained staff and guidelines for NCDs management. Readiness scores were calculated as the mean availability of tracer items expressed as a percentage and a cut-off threshold of ≥ 70% was used to classify facilities as "ready" to manage NCDs. Descriptive and bivariate analyses were performed to assess the readiness of facilities by type, level, and location settings. Logistic regressions were used to identify factors associated with the readiness of facilities to provide disease-specific services. RESULTS: Of the surveyed facilities, 93.8% offered chronic respiratory disease (CRD) diagnosis and/or management services, 82.2% diabetes mellitus, 65.1% cardiovascular disease (CVD), and only 24.4% cervical cancer screening services. The mean readiness scores for diabetes mellitus (71%; 95% CI: 67-74) and CVD (69%; 95% CI: 66-72) were relatively high. Although CRD services were reportedly the most widely available, its mean readiness score was low (48%; 95% CI: 45-50). The majority of facilities offering cervical cancer services had all the necessary tracer items available to provide these services. Modeling results revealed that private facilities were more likely to be "ready" to offer NCDs services than public facilities. Similarly, hospitals were more likely "ready" to provide NCDs services than primary health facilities. These disparities in service readiness extended to the regional and urban/rural divide. CONCLUSIONS: Important gaps in the current readiness of facilities to manage NCDs in Kenya at different levels of health care were revealed, showing variations by disease and healthcare facility type. A collective approach is therefore needed to bridge the gap between resource availability and population healthcare needs.

Perspectives on returning individual and aggregate genomic research results to study participants and communities in Kenya: a qualitative study.

BACKGROUND: A fundamental ethical challenge in conducting genomics research is the question of what and how individual level genetic findings and aggregate genomic results should be conveyed to research participants and communities. This is within the context of minimal guidance, policies, and experiences, particularly in Africa. The aim of this study was to explore the perspectives of key stakeholders' on returning genomics research results to participants in Kenya. METHODS: This qualitative study involved focus group discussions (FGDs) and in-depth interviews (IDIs) with 69 stakeholders. The purposively selected participants, included research ethics committee (REC) members (8), community members (44), community resource persons (8), and researchers (9). A semi-structured interview guide was used to facilitate discussions. Six FGDs and twenty-five (IDIs) were conducted among the different stakeholders. The issues explored in the interviews included: (1) views on returning results, (2) kind of results to be returned, (3) value of returning results to participants, and (4) challenges anticipated in returning results to participants and communities. The interviews were audio-recorded, transcribed verbatim, and coded in Nvivo 12 pro. Thematic and content analysis was conducted. RESULTS: Participants agreed on the importance of returning genomic results either as individual or aggregate results. The most cited reasons for returning of genomic results included recognizing participants' contribution to research, encouraging participation in future research, and increasing the awareness of scientific progress. Other aspects on how genomic research results should be shared included sharing easy to understand results in the shortest time possible and maintaining confidentiality when sharing sensitive results. CONCLUSIONS: This study identified key stakeholders' perspectives on returning genomic results at the individual and community levels in two urban informal settlements of Nairobi. The majority of the participants expect to receive feedback about their genomic results, and it is an obligation for researchers to see how to best fulfil it.

Challenges and prospects for implementation of community health volunteers' digital health solutions in Kenya: a qualitative study.

BACKGROUND: The value of digital health technologies in delivering vital health care interventions, especially in low resource settings is increasingly appreciated. We co-developed and tested a decision support mobile health (m-Health) application (app);with some of the forms used by Community Health Volunteers (CHVs) in Kenya to collect data and connected to health facilities. This paper explores the experiences of CHVs, health workers and members of Sub-County Health Management Teams following implementation of the project. METHODS: Data were collected in December 2017 through in-depth interviews and focus group discussions with CHVs and key informant interviews with health care workers and health managers in Kamukunji sub-County of Nairobi, Kenya. Data coding and analysis was performed in NVivo 12. RESULTS: Regarding users and health managers' perceptions towards the system; three main themes were identified: 1) variations in use, 2) barriers to use and 3) recommendations to improve use. Health workers at the private facility and some CHVs used the system more than health workers at the public facilities. Four sub-themes under barriers to use were socio-political environment, attitudes and behaviour, issues related to the system and poor infrastructure. A prolonged health workers' strike, the contentious presidential election in the year of implementation, interrupted electricity supply and lack of basic electric fixtures were major barriers to use. Suggestions to improve usage were: 1) integration of the system with others in use and making it available on users' regular phones, and 2) explore sustainable motivation models to users as well as performance based remuneration. CONCLUSIONS: The findings reveal the importance of considering the readiness of information and communication technologies (ICT) users before rollout of ICT solutions. The political and sociocultural environment in which the innovation is to be implemented and integration of new solutions into existing ones is critical for success. As more healthcare delivery models are developed, harnessing the potential of digital technologies, strengthening health systems is critical as this provides the backbone on which such innovations draw support.

Blood Pressure and Arterial Stiffness in Kenyan Adolescents With the Sickle Cell Trait.

The potential association between sickle cell trait (SCT) and increased arterial stiffness/blood pressure (BP) has not been evaluated in detail despite its association with stroke, sudden death, and renal disease. We performed 24-hour ambulatory BP monitoring and arterial stiffness measurements in adolescents raised in a malaria-free environment in Kenya. Between December 2015 and June 2016, 938 randomly selected adolescents (ages 11-17 years) who had been continuous residents of Nairobi from birth were invited to participate in the study. Standard clinic BP measurement was performed, followed by 24-hour ambulatory BP monitoring and arterial stiffness measurement using an Arteriograph24 (TensioMed Ltd., Budapest, Hungary) device. SCT status was determined using DNA genotyping in contemporaneously collected blood samples. Of the 938 adolescents invited to participate, 609 (65%) provided complete data for analysis. SCT was present in 103 (15%). Mean 24-hour systolic and diastolic BPs were 116 (standard deviation (SD), 11.5) mm Hg and 64 (SD, 7) mm Hg, respectively, in children with SCT and 117 (SD, 11.4) mm Hg and 64 (SD, 6.8) mm Hg, respectively, in non-SCT children. Mean pulse wave velocity (PWV) was 7.1 (SD, 0.8) m/second and 7.0 (SD, 0.8) m/second in SCT and non-SCT children, respectively. We observed no differences in PWV or in any clinic or ambulatory BP-derived measures between adolescents with and without SCT. These data suggest that SCT does not independently influence BP or PWV.

Ethnicity and breast cancer characteristics in Kenya.

PURPOSE: There are no published data from specific regions of sub-Saharan Africa describing the clinical and pathological characteristics and molecular subtypes of invasive breast cancer by ethnic group. The purpose of this study was to investigate these characteristics among the three major ethno-cultural groupings in Kenya. METHODS: The study included women with pathologically confirmed breast cancer diagnosed between March 2012 and May 2015 at 11 hospitals throughout Kenya. Sociodemographic, clinical, and reproductive data were collected by questionnaire, and pathology review and immunohistochemistry were performed centrally. RESULTS: The 846 cases included 661 Bantus (78.1%), 143 Nilotes (16.9%), 19 Cushites (2.3%), and 23 patients of mixed ethnicity (2.7%). In analyses comparing the two major ethnic groups, Bantus were more educated, more overweight, had an older age at first birth, and had a younger age at menopause than Nilotes (p < 0.05 for all comparisons). In analyses restricted to definitive surgery specimens, there were no statistically significant differences in tumor characteristics or molecular subtypes by ethnicity, although the Nilote tumors tended to be larger (OR for ≥ 5 cm vs. < 2 cm: 3.86, 95% CI 0.77, 19.30) and were somewhat more likely to be HER2 enriched (OR for HER2 enriched vs. Luminal A/B: 1.41, 95% CI 0.79, 2.49). CONCLUSION: This case series showed no significant differences in breast cancer tumor characteristics or molecular subtypes, but significant differences in sociodemographic characteristics and reproductive factors, among the three major ethnic groups in Kenya. We suggest further evaluation of ethnic differences in breast cancer throughout the genetically and culturally diverse populations of sub-Saharan Africa.

Facilitators and barriers in the formulation and implementation of tobacco control policies in Kenya: a qualitative study.

BACKGROUND: Tobacco use has serious public health implications for both smokers and non-smokers and significant economic implications on health care spending for governments. Tobacco-related deaths are preventable through well-formulated and implemented tobacco control policies. Using tobacco policy as a case study, we aim to describe the tobacco control policy formulation and implementation and the associated facilitators and barriers in Kenya. METHOD: We used a case-study methodology to integrate two sources of data: a document review of relevant policy documents, published articles and reports between 2004 and 2015 (N = 24 documents) and in-depth interviews (N = 39). Participants were from sectors relevant to tobacco control: research and academia, government, private industry, civil society and non-governmental organizations. Thematic analysis was used to analyze all data. RESULTS: Kenya developed a comprehensive tobacco policy in 2007. The main facilitators to the policy formulation and implementation process were (1) political commitment and strong leadership, (2) the presence of a coordination mechanism, (3) stakeholder passion and commitment, (4) resources and (5) constitutional requirement for inclusion of stakeholders. The main barriers to policy formulation and implementation were (1) industry interference, (2) resources, (3) poor enforcement and (4) lack of clear roles. CONCLUSION: Although the process for formulating a tobacco control policy in Kenya was protracted, the current policy aligns well with current global efforts. The implementation is still weak and this can be enhanced by provision of necessary resources and continued engagement of all relevant stakeholders. There is a need for continued engagement with political leadership and continuous international information exchange on how policy-makers can address and counter industry interference in tobacco control efforts.

The evolution of non-communicable diseases policies in post-apartheid South Africa.

BACKGROUND: Redressing structural inequality within the South African society in the post-apartheid era became the central focus of the democratic government. Policies on social and economic transformation were guided by the government's blueprint, the Reconstruction and Development Programme. The purpose of this paper is to trace the evolution of non-communicable disease (NCD) policies in South Africa and the extent to which the multi-sectoral approach was utilised, while explicating the underlying rationale for "best buy" interventions adopted to reduce and control NCDs in South Africa. The paper critically engages with the political and ideological factors that influenced design of particular NCD policies. METHODS: Through a case study design, policies targeting specific NCD risk factors (tobacco smoking, unhealthy diets, harmful use of alcohol and physical inactivity) were assessed. This involved reviewing documents and interviewing 44 key informants (2014-2016) from the health and non-health sectors. Thematic analysis was used to draw out the key themes that emerged from the key informant interviews and the documents reviewed. RESULTS: South Africa had comprehensive policies covering all the major NCD risk factors starting from the early 1990's, long before the global drive to tackle NCDs. The plethora of NCD policies is attributable to the political climate in post-apartheid South Africa that set a different trajectory for the state that was mandated to tackle entrenched inequalities. However, there has been an increase in prevalence of NCD risk factors within the general population. About 60% of women and 30% of men are overweight or obese. While a multi-sectoral approach is part of public policy discourse, its application in the implementation of NCD policies and programmes is a challenge. CONCLUSIONS: NCD prevalence remains high in South Africa. There is need to adopt the multi-sectoral approach in the implementation of NCD policies and programmes.

Prevalence and predictors of physical inactivity levels among Kenyan adults (18-69 years): an analysis of STEPS survey 2015.

BACKGROUND: Physical inactivity accounts for more than 3 million deaths worldwide, and is implicated in causing 6% of coronary heart diseases, 7% of diabetes, and 10% of colon or breast cancer. Globally, research has shown that modifying four commonly shared risky behaviours, including poor nutrition, tobacco use, harmful use of alcohol, and physical inactivity, can reduce occurrence of non-communicable diseases (NCDs). Risk factor surveillance through population-based periodic surveys, has been identified as an effective strategy to inform public health interventions in NCD control. The stepwise approach to surveillance (STEPS) survey is one such initiative, and Kenya carried out its first survey in 2015. This study sought to describe the physical inactivity risk factors from the findings of the Kenya STEPS survey. METHODS: This study employed countrywide representative survey administered between April and June 2015. A three stage cluster sampling design was used to select clusters, households and eligible individuals. All adults between 18 and 69 years in selected households were eligible. Data on demographic, behavioural, and biochemical characteristics were collected. Prevalence of physical inactivity was computed. Logistic regression used to explore factors associated with physical inactivity. RESULTS: A total of 4500 individuals consented to participate from eligible 6000 households. The mean age was 40.5 (39.9-41.1) years, with 51.3% of the respondents being female. Overall 346 (7.7%) of respondents were classified as physically inactive. Physical inactivity was associated with female gender, middle age (30-49 years), and increasing level of education, increasing wealth index and low levels of High Density Lipoproteins (HDL). CONCLUSION: A modest prevalence of physical inactivity slightly higher than in neighbouring countries was found in this study. Gender, age, education level and wealth index are evident areas that predict physical inactivity which can be focused on to develop programs that would work towards reducing physical inactivity among adults in Kenya.

Dietary risk factors for non-communicable diseases in Kenya: findings of the STEPS survey, 2015.

BACKGROUND: Burden of non-communicable diseases (NCD) is increasing worldwide. Risk factor surveillance informs public health interventions in NCD control. This study describes the dietary risk factors for NCD found in the Kenya STEPS survey, 2015. METHODS: We performed secondary analysis of the STEPS dataset to determine prevalence of dietary NCD risk factors and their determinants. New variables were created; high dietary salt, defined as addition of salt while eating or intake of processed foods high in salt and high dietary sugar, defined as intake of processed foods or drinks high in sugar in most meals or addition of sugar to beverages already with sugar, on a daily basis. We used the World Health Organization definition of minimum required intake of fruits and vegetables as consumption of less than five servings of fruits and vegetables per day. Perceptions of respondents on diet and health were also assessed. Accounting for complex survey sampling, we calculated prevalence of the various dietary modifiable determinants and adjusted odds ratios (AOR) to identify factors independently associated with dietary NCD risk factors. RESULTS: Of the 4484 individuals surveyed; mean age was 40.5 years (39.9-41.1 years), 60% were female. Prevalence of high reported dietary salt intake was 18.3% (95% CI 17.2%, 19.5%) and sugar 13.7% (95% CI 11.7-15.8%). Awareness of health risk from dietary salt was 88% and 91% for dietary sugar. Approximately 56% of the respondents were implementing strategies to reduce dietary salt and 54% were doing the same for dietary sugar. Only 6.0% (95% CI 4.3-7.6%) of the respondents reported intake of a minimum of five servings of both fruits and vegetables daily. Unhealthy diet was associated with being male (AOR 1.33, 95% CI 1.04, 1.70,), age below 46 years (AOR 1.78, 95% CI 1.42, 2.12) and being a student (AOR 15.6, 95% CI 2.44, 99.39). CONCLUSION: Dietary risk communication should be targeted to males and people under 45 years of age, especially students. Further research is necessary to understand the knowledge: practice mismatch on unhealthy diets.

Prevalence, awareness, treatment and control of hypertension and their determinants: results from a national survey in Kenya.

BACKGROUND: Hypertension is the most important risk factor for cardiovascular diseases and the leading cause of death worldwide. Despite growing evidence that the prevalence of hypertension is rising in sub-Saharan Africa, national data on hypertension that can guide programming are missing for many countries. In this study, we estimated the prevalence of hypertension, awareness, treatment, and control. We further examined the factors associated with hypertension and awareness. METHOD: We used data from the 2015 Kenya STEPs survey, a national cross-sectional household survey targeting randomly selected people aged 18-69 years. Demographic and behavioral characteristics as well as physical measurements were collected using the World Health Organization's STEPs Survey methodology. Descriptive statistics were used to estimate the prevalence, awareness, treatment and control of hypertension. Multiple logistic regression models were used to identify the determinants of hypertension and awareness. RESULTS: The study surveyed 4485 participants. The overall age-standardized prevalence for hypertension was 24.5% (95% confidence interval (CI) 22.6% to 26.6%). Among individuals with hypertension, only 15.6% (95% CI 12.4% to 18.9%) were aware of their elevated blood pressure. Among those aware only 26.9%; (95% CI 17.1% to 36.4%) were on treatment and 51.7%; (95% CI 33.5% to 69.9%) among those on treatment had achieved blood pressure control. Factors associated with hypertension were older age (p < 0.001), higher body mass index (BMI) (p < 0.001) and harmful use of alcohol (p < 0.001). Similarly, factors associated with awareness were older age (p = 0.013) and being male (p < 0.001). CONCLUSION: This study provides the first nationally-representative estimates for hypertension in Kenya. Prevalence among adults is high, with unacceptably low levels of awareness, treatment and control. The results also reveal that men are less aware of their hypertension status hence special attention should focus on this group.

Prevalence and factors associated with pre-diabetes and diabetes mellitus in Kenya: results from a national survey.

BACKGROUND: Diabetes Mellitus is one of the four major non-communicable diseases causing about 4 million deaths in 2017. By 2040, low income countries are projected to experience 92% increase in mortality due to diabetes. Undiagnosed diabetes poses a public health concern with costly public health implications especially in Africa. It is therefore crucial to examine the burden and risk factors for diabetes at national level to inform policy and national programs. METHODS: Data from the 2015 Kenya national STEPs survey of adults aged 18-69 years were used. Pre-diabetes was defined as impaired fasting blood glucose level (6.1 mmol/l to < 7 mmol/l) while diabetes was defined as impaired fasting blood glucose level ≥ 7 mmol/l. Descriptive statistics were used to determine the prevalence of pre-diabetes and diabetes and logistic regression was used to identify associated factors. RESULTS: Complete data for 4069 respondents (51% females), with 46% aged 18-29 and 61% in rural areas were analyzed. The age-standardized prevalence for pre-diabetes and diabetes were 3.1% (95% CI: 2.2, 4.0) and 2.4% (1.8, 3.0) respectively. Only 43.7% were aware of their glycemic condition, one in five of those who had diabetes had received treatment, and only 7% of those diagnosed with diabetes had their blood glucose under control. Primary education ((both incomplete (0.21, 95%CI 0.10-0.47) and complete (0.40, 95%CI 0.23-0.71)) were associated with lower odds of pre-diabetes. Older age (60-69 years, AOR; 5.6, 95%CI 2.1-15.1) and raised blood pressure (2.8, 95% CI 1.5-5.0) were associated diabetes while overweight/obesity among women was associated with diabetes. CONCLUSION: The overall diabetes prevalence in Kenya is consistent with what has been reported in other sub-Saharan African countries. Of concern is the higher prevalence of pre-diabetes and undiagnosed diabetes that can progress to complications in the absence of interventions and the low diabetes awareness and control. This is the first nationally representative study to identify important groups at risk of pre-diabetes and diabetes that can be targeted for screening, health promotion and treatment.

Patterns of non-communicable disease and injury risk factors in Kenyan adult population: a cluster analysis.

BACKGROUND: Non-communicable diseases and unintentional injuries are emerging public health problems in sub-Saharan Africa. These threats have multiple risk factors with complex interactions. Though some studies have explored the magnitude and distribution of those risk factors in many populations in Kenya, an exploration of segmentation of population at a national level by risk profile, which is crucial for a differentiated approach, is currently lacking. The aim of this study was to examine patterns of non-communicable disease and injury risk through the identification of clusters and investigation of correlates of those clusters among Kenyan adult population. METHODS: We used data from the 2015 STEPs survey of non-communicable disease risk factors conducted among 4484 adults aged between 18 and 69 years in Kenya. A total of 12 risk factors for NCDs and 9 factors for injury were used as clustering variables. A K-medians Cluster Analysis was applied. We used matching as the measure of the similarity/dissimilarity among the clustering variables. While clusters were described using the risk factors, the predictors of the clustering were investigated using multinomial logistic regression. RESULTS: We have identified five clusters for NCDs and four clusters for injury based on the risk profile of the population. The NCD risk clusters were labelled as cluster hypertensives, harmful users, the hopefuls, the obese, and the fat lovers. The injury risk clusters were labelled as helmet users, jaywalkers, the defiant and the compliant. Among the possible predictors of clustering, age, gender, education and wealth index came out as strong predictors of the cluster variables. CONCLUSION: This cluster analysis has identified important clusters of adult Kenyan population for non-communicable disease and injury risk profiles. Risk reduction interventions could consider these clusters as potential target in the development and segmentation of a differentiated approach.

Predictors of cervical cancer screening among Kenyan women: results of a nested case-control study in a nationally representative survey.

BACKGROUND: Cervical cancer is a major public health concern in Kenya. It is the leading cause of cancer morbidity and mortality among women. Although screening is an effective prevention method, uptake is low among eligible women. Little is known about predictors of cervical cancer screening uptake. This study explored relationship between uptake of cervical cancer screening, socio-demographic, behavioral and biological risk factors. METHODS: Nested case-control study within STEPS survey, a population-based cross-sectional household survey conducted between April and June 2015.Cases were women who had undergone cervical cancer screening and controls were unscreened women. Study participants were women eligible for cervical cancer screening (30-49 years). Variables included socio-demographic; behavioral risk factors such as physical activity, tobacco and alcohol use diet and biological factors like diabetes and hypertension. Outcome of interest was cervical cancer screening. Data analysis was done using STATA version 14. Logistic regression model was used to assess relationship between cervical cancer screening and socio-demographic, behavioral and biological risk factors. RESULTS: Of 1180 women interviewed, 16.4% (n = 194) had been screened for cervical cancer. Of unscreened women (n = 986), 67.9% were aware of cervical cancer screening. Higher screening rates were observed in more educated women (25.2%), highest income quintile (29.6%) and living in urban areas (23%) than in women with no formal education (3.2%), poorest (3.6%) and living in rural areas (13.8%). Younger women (35-39) and those with low High-density lipoprotein (HDL) were less likely to be screened [OR = 0.56; 95% CI = (0.34, 0.93); p-value = 0.025] and [OR = 0.51; 95% CI = (0.29, 0.91); p = value 0.023] respectively. Self-employed women, those in the fourth wealth quintile, binge drinkers, high sugar consumption and insufficient physical activity were more likely to be screened [OR 2.55 (1.12, 5.81) p value 0.026], [OR 3.56 (1.37, 9.28) p value 0.009], [OR 5.94 (1.52, 23.15) p value 0.010], [OR 2.99 (1.51, 5.89) p value 0.002] and [OR 2.79 (1.37, 5.68) p value 0.005] respectively. CONCLUSION: Uptake of cervical cancer screening is low despite high awareness. Strategies to improve cervical cancer screening in Kenya should be implemented with messages targeting persons with both risky and non-risky lifestyles especially younger women with no formal education living in rural areas.

Multi-sectoral action in non-communicable disease prevention policy development in five African countries.

BACKGROUND: The rise of non-communicable diseases (NCDs) in Africa requires a multi-sectoral action (MSA) in their prevention and control. This study aimed to generate evidence on the extent of MSA application in NCD prevention policy development in five sub-Saharan African countries (Kenya, South Africa, Cameroon, Nigeria and Malawi) focusing on policies around the major NCD risk factors. METHODS: The broader study applied a multiple case study design to capture rich descriptions of policy contents, processes and actors as well as contextual factors related to the policies around the major NCD risk factors at single- and multi-country levels. Data were collected through document reviews and key informant interviews with decision-makers and implementers in various sectors. Further consultations were conducted with NCD experts on MSA application in NCD prevention policies in the region. For this paper, we report on how MSA was applied in the policy process. RESULTS: The findings revealed some degree of application of MSA in NCD prevention policy development in these countries. However, the level of sector engagement varies across different NCD policies, from passive participation to active engagement, and by country. There was higher engagement of sectors in developing tobacco policies across the countries, followed by alcohol policies. Multi-sectoral action for tobacco and to some extent, alcohol, was enabled through established structures at national levels including inter-ministerial and parliamentary committees. More often coordination was enabled through expert or technical working groups driven by the health sectors. The main barriers to multi-sectoral action included lack of awareness by various sectors about their potential contribution, weak political will, coordination complexity and inadequate resources. CONCLUSION: MSA is possible in NCD prevention policy development in African countries. However, the findings illustrate various challenges in bringing sectors together to develop policies to address the increasing NCD burden in the region. Stronger coordination mechanisms with clear guidelines for sector engagement are required for effective MSA in NCD prevention. Such a mechanisms should include approaches for capacity building and resource generation to enable multi-sectoral action in NCD policy formulation, implementation and monitoring of outcomes.

Individual and household level factors associated with presence of multiple non-communicable disease risk factors in Kenyan adults.

BACKGROUND: Non-communicable diseases (NCDs), are increasing globally, causing about 60% of disability-adjusted life years and 39.8 million deaths in 2015. Risk factors often cluster and interact multiplicatively in an individual and this is strongly associated with the development and severity of NCDs. We assessed the sociodemographic factors associated with the presence of multiple NCD risk factors among individuals aged 18 years and older in the Kenyan population. METHODS: We used national representative data from 4066 individuals out of 4500 who participated in the WHO STEPs study in 2015. NCD risk factor counts were derived by summing the risk factors present in an individual and categorising into 1-3, 4-6 and 7+ risk factors in any combination of the 12 assessed NCD risk factors (hypertension, diabetes mellitus, cholesterol, insufficient physical activity, excessive alcohol use, tobacco use and obesity, excess sugar intake, insufficient fruit and vegetables intake, high salt consumption, and use of unhealthy cooking fats and oils). Ordered logistic regression was used to investigate the sociodemographic factors associated with an individual possesing multiple NCD risk factors. RESULTS: Majority (75.8%) of the individuals in the study possesed 4-6 and 10% had ≥7 NCDs risk factors. Nearly everyone (99.8%) had insufficient fruits and vegetable intakes, 89.5% consumed high salt in their diet and 80.3% did not engage in sufficient physical activity. Apart from NCD risk count which increased with age among both men and women, associations with other socio-demographic factors differed between men and women. A woman of Akamba ethinicity had lower odds (0.43) while Meru women had higher odds (3.58) of higher NCD risk factor count, compared to the Kalenjin women. Among men, being a Kisii or Luo was associated with lower odds (0.48 and 0.25 respectively) of higher NCD risk factor count. Women in a marital union had higher odds (1.58) of a higher NCD risk factor count. CONCLUSION: Majority of Kenyan adults possess more than four NCD risk factors; a clear indication of an emerging epidemic of NCDs in this population. Effective and multi-sectoral interventions targeting multiple risk factors in individuals are required to mitigate especially the behavioural and modifiable NCD risk factors in Kenya.

Influence of the WHO framework convention on tobacco control on tobacco legislation and policies in sub-Saharan Africa.

BACKGROUND: The World Health Organization's Framework Convention on Tobacco Control, enforced in 2005, was a watershed international treaty that stipulated requirements for signatories to govern the production, sale, distribution, advertisement, and taxation of tobacco to reduce its impact on health. This paper describes the timelines, context, key actors, and strategies in the development and implementation of the treaty and describes how six sub-Saharan countries responded to its call for action on tobacco control. METHODS: A multi-country policy review using case study design was conducted in Cameroon, Kenya, Nigeria, Malawi, South Africa, and Togo. All documents related to the WHO Framework Convention on Tobacco Control and individual country implementation of tobacco policies were reviewed, and key informant interviews related to the countries' development and implementation of tobacco policies were conducted. RESULTS: Multiple stakeholders, including academics and activists, led a concerted effort for more than 10 years to push the WHO treaty forward despite counter-marketing from the tobacco industry. Once the treaty was enacted, Cameroon, Kenya, Nigeria, Malawi, South Africa, and Togo responded in unique ways to implement tobacco policies, with differences associated with the country's socio-economic context, priorities of country leaders, industry presence, and choice of strategies. All the study countries except Malawi have acceded to and ratified the WHO tobacco treaty and implemented tobacco control policy. CONCLUSIONS: The WHO Framework Convention on Tobacco Control provided an unprecedented opportunity for global action against the public health effects of tobacco including non-communicable diseases. Reviewing how six sub-Saharan countries responded to the treaty to mobilize resources and implement tobacco control policies has provided insight for how to utilise international regulations and commitments to accelerate policy impact on the prevention of non-communicable diseases.

Policy environment for prevention, control and management of cardiovascular diseases in primary health care in Kenya.

BACKGROUND: In Kenya, cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) accounted for more than 10% of total deaths and 4% of total Disability-Adjusted Life Years (DALYs) in 2015 with a steady increase over the past decade. The main objective of this paper was to review the existing policies and their content in relation to prevention, control and management of CVDs at primary health care (PHC) level in Kenya. METHODS: A targeted document search in Google engine using keywords "Kenya national policy on cardiovascular diseases" and "Kenya national policy on non-communicable diseases (NCDs)" was conducted in addition to key informant interviews with Kenyan policy makers. Relevant regional and international policy documents were also included. The contents of documents identified were reviewed to assess how well they aligned with global health policies on CVD prevention, control and management. Thematic content analysis of the key informant interviews was also conducted to supplement the document reviews. RESULTS: A total of 17 documents were reviewed and three key informants interviewed. Besides the Tobacco Control Act (2007), all policy documents for CVD prevention, control and management were developed after 2013. The national policies were preceded by global initiatives and guidelines and were similar in content with the global policies. The Kenya health policy (2014-2030), The Kenya Health Sector Strategic and Investment Plan (2014-2018) and the Kenya National Strategy for the Prevention and Control of Non-communicable diseases (2015-2020) had strategies on NCDs including CVDs. Other policy documents for behavioral risk factors (The Tobacco Control Act 2007, Alcoholic Drinks Control (Licensing) Regulations (2010)) were available. The National Nutrition Action Plan (2012-2017) was available as a draft. Although Kenya has a tiered health care system comprising primary healthcare, integration of CVD prevention and control at PHC level was not explicitly mentioned in the policy documents. CONCLUSION: This review revealed important gaps in the policy environment for prevention, control and management of CVDs in PHC settings in Kenya. There is need to continuously engage the ministry of health and other sectors to prioritize inclusion of CVD services in PHC.

Effectiveness of home-based nutritional counselling and support on exclusive breastfeeding in urban poor settings in Nairobi: a cluster randomized controlled trial.

BACKGROUND: Exclusive breastfeeding (EBF) improves infant health and survival. We tested the effectiveness of a home-based intervention using Community Health Workers (CHWs) on EBF for six months in urban poor settings in Kenya. METHODS: We conducted a cluster-randomized controlled trial in Korogocho and Viwandani slums in Nairobi. We recruited pregnant women and followed them until the infant's first birthday. Fourteen community clusters were randomized to intervention or control arm. The intervention arm received home-based nutritional counselling during scheduled visits by CHWs trained to provide specific maternal infant and young child nutrition (MIYCN) messages and standard care. The control arm was visited by CHWs who were not trained in MIYCN and they provided standard care (which included aspects of ante-natal and post-natal care, family planning, water, sanitation and hygiene, delivery with skilled attendance, immunization and community nutrition). CHWs in both groups distributed similar information materials on MIYCN. Differences in EBF by intervention status were tested using chi square and logistic regression, employing intention-to-treat analysis. RESULTS: A total of 1110 mother-child pairs were involved, about half in each arm. At baseline, demographic and socioeconomic factors were similar between the two arms. The rates of EBF for 6 months increased from 2% pre-intervention to 55.2% (95% CI 50.4-59.9) in the intervention group and 54.6% (95% CI 50.0-59.1) in the control group. The adjusted odds of EBF (after adjusting for baseline characteristics) were slightly higher in the intervention arm compared to the control arm but not significantly different: for 0-2 months (OR 1.27, 95% CI 0.55 to 2.96; p = 0.550); 0-4 months (OR 1.15; 95% CI 0.54 to 2.42; p = 0.696), and 0-6 months (OR 1.11, 95% CI 0.61 to 2.02; p = 0.718). CONCLUSIONS: EBF for six months significantly increased in both arms indicating potential effectiveness of using CHWs to provide home-based counselling to mothers. The lack of any difference in EBF rates in the two groups suggests potential contamination of the control arm by information reserved for the intervention arm. Nevertheless, this study indicates a great potential for use of CHWs when they are incentivized and monitored as an effective model of promotion of EBF, particularly in urban poor settings. Given the equivalence of the results in both arms, the study suggests that the basic nutritional training given to CHWs in the basic primary health care training, and/or provision of information materials may be adequate in improving EBF rates in communities. However, further investigations on this may be needed. One contribution of these findings to implementation science is the difficulty in finding an appropriate counterfactual for community-based educational interventions. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ISRCTN ISRCTN83692672 . Registered 11 November 2012. Retrospectively registered.