FBXL21 regulates oscillation of the circadian clock through ubiquitination and stabilization of cryptochromes.

In the mammalian circadian clockwork, CRY1 and CRY2 repressor proteins are regulated by posttranslational modifications for temporally coordinated transcription of clock genes. Previous studies revealed that FBXL3, an F-box-type E3 ligase, ubiquitinates CRYs and mediates their degradation. Here, we found that FBXL21 also ubiquitinates CRYs but counteracts FBXL3. Fbxl21(-/-) mice exhibited normal periodicity of wheel-running rhythms with compromised organization of daily activities, while an extremely long-period phenotype of Fbxl3(-/-) mice was attenuated in Fbxl3/Fbxl21 double-knockout mice. The double knockout destabilized the behavioral rhythms progressively and sometimes elicited arrhythmicity. Surprisingly, FBXL21 stabilized CRYs and antagonized the destabilizing action by FBXL3. Predominantly cytosolic distribution of FBXL21 contrasts with nuclear localization of FBXL3. These results emphasize the physiological importance of antagonizing actions between FBXL21 and FBXL3 on CRYs, and their combined actions at different subcellular locations stabilize oscillation of the circadian clock.

High mobility group nucleosome-binding family proteins promote astrocyte differentiation of neural precursor cells.

Astrocytes are the most abundant cell type in the mammalian brain and are important for the functions of the central nervous system. Although previous studies have shown that the STAT signaling pathway or its regulators promote the generation of astrocytes from multipotent neural precursor cells (NPCs) in the developing mammalian brain, the molecular mechanisms that regulate the astrocytic fate decision have still remained largely unclear. Here, we show that the high mobility group nucleosome-binding (HMGN) family proteins, HMGN1, 2, and 3, promote astrocyte differentiation of NPCs during brain development. HMGN proteins were expressed in NPCs, Sox9(+) glial progenitors, and GFAP(+) astrocytes in perinatal and adult brains. Forced expression of either HMGN1, 2, or 3 in NPCs in cultures or in the late embryonic neocortex increased the generation of astrocytes at the expense of neurons. Conversely, knockdown of either HMGN1, 2, or 3 in NPCs suppressed astrocyte differentiation and promoted neuronal differentiation. Importantly, overexpression of HMGN proteins did not induce the phosphorylation of STAT3 or activate STAT reporter genes. In addition, HMGN family proteins did not enhance DNA demethylation and acetylation of histone H3 around the STAT-binding site of the gfap promoter. Moreover, knockdown of HMGN family proteins significantly reduced astrocyte differentiation induced by gliogenic signal ciliary neurotrophic factor, which activates the JAK-STAT pathway. Therefore, we propose that HMGN family proteins are novel chromatin regulatory factors that control astrocyte fate decision/differentiation in parallel with or downstream of the JAK-STAT pathway through modulation of the responsiveness to gliogenic signals.

Layer-specific morphological and molecular differences in neocortical astrocytes and their dependence on neuronal layers.

Non-pial neocortical astrocytes have historically been thought to comprise largely a nondiverse population of protoplasmic astrocytes. Here we show that astrocytes of the mouse somatosensory cortex manifest layer-specific morphological and molecular differences. Two- and three-dimensional observations revealed that astrocytes in the different layers possess distinct morphologies as reflected by differences in cell orientation, territorial volume, and arborization. The extent of ensheathment of synaptic clefts by astrocytes in layer II/III was greater than that by those in layer VI. Moreover, differences in gene expression were observed between upper-layer and deep-layer astrocytes. Importantly, layer-specific differences in astrocyte properties were abrogated in reeler and Dab1 conditional knockout mice, in which neuronal layers are disturbed, suggesting that neuronal layers are a prerequisite for the observed morphological and molecular differences of neocortical astrocytes. This study thus demonstrates the existence of layer-specific interactions between neurons and astrocytes, which may underlie their layer-specific functions.

USP7 and TDP-43: Pleiotropic Regulation of Cryptochrome Protein Stability Paces the Oscillation of the Mammalian Circadian Clock.

Mammalian Cryptochromes, CRY1 and CRY2, function as principal regulators of a transcription-translation-based negative feedback loop underlying the mammalian circadian clockwork. An F-box protein, FBXL3, promotes ubiquitination and degradation of CRYs, while FBXL21, the closest paralog of FBXL3, ubiquitinates CRYs but leads to stabilization of CRYs. Fbxl3 knockout extremely lengthened the circadian period, and deletion of Fbxl21 gene in Fbxl3-deficient mice partially rescued the period-lengthening phenotype, suggesting a key role of CRY protein stability for maintenance of the circadian periodicity. Here, we employed a proteomics strategy to explore regulators for the protein stability of CRYs. We found that ubiquitin-specific protease 7 (USP7 also known as HAUSP) associates with CRY1 and CRY2 and stabilizes CRYs through deubiquitination. Treatment with USP7-specific inhibitor or Usp7 knockdown shortened the circadian period of the cellular rhythm. We identified another CRYs-interacting protein, TAR DNA binding protein 43 (TDP-43), an RNA-binding protein. TDP-43 stabilized CRY1 and CRY2, and its knockdown also shortened the circadian period in cultured cells. The present study identified USP7 and TDP-43 as the regulators of CRY1 and CRY2, underscoring the significance of the stability control process of CRY proteins for period determination in the mammalian circadian clockwork.