Risk of transmission of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 by transfusion: A literature review.

Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is a novel human coronavirus responsible for coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). The emergence of this virus in Wuhan, China, at the end of 2019 and its worldwide spread to reach the pandemic stage has raised concerns about the possible risk that it might be transmissible by transfusion. This theoretical risk is further supported by reports of the detection of viral RNA in the blood of some infected individuals. To further address this risk, a thorough PubMed literature search was performed to systematically identify studies reporting data on the detection of SARS-CoV-2 RNA in blood or its components. Complementary searches were done to identify articles reporting data on the in vitro infectivity of blood components. At least 23 articles presenting data on the detection of SARS-CoV-2 RNA in blood, plasma, or serum were identified. Of these, three studies reported on blood donors with COVID-19 infection identified after donation, and no cases of transfusion transmission were identified. A few studies mentioned results of in vitro infectivity assays of blood components in permissive cell lines, none of which were able to detect infectious virus in blood or its components. Complementary searches have identified reports demonstrating that the correlation between the presence of viral RNA in a biologic sample and infectivity requires a minimal RNA load, which is rarely, if ever, observed in blood components. Overall, the available evidence suggests that the risk of transmission of SARS-CoV-2 by transfusion remains theoretical.

HIV Pre-Exposure Prophylaxis, Blood Donor Deferral, Occult Infection, and Risk of HIV Transmission by Transfusion: A Fine Balance Between Evidence-Based Donor Selection Criteria and Transfusion Safety.

Pre- and postexposure prophylaxis for human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) are key to reducing the transmission of this virus. Furthermore, low-toxicity, long-acting formulations provide additional clinical benefits, in particular easier adherence to treatment and prevention. However, breakthrough HIV infections can occur despite the use of pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP), mainly due to suboptimal adherence or multi-drug resistant HIV strains. Albeit rare, PrEP breakthrough infections have also been reported in fully adherent patients. Should such breakthrough infection occur in an eligible blood donor, PrEP might suppress viremia and delay antibody seroconversion, thereby masking the infection and increasing the risk of transfusion transmission. This possibility has raised concerns in the blood transfusion community but remains little documented. Therefore, a literature search was performed to assess the state of knowledge on the risk of PrEP breakthrough infection, with a particular focus on the risk of HIV entering the blood supply. Evidently, PrEP breakthrough infections are rare, although the risk is not zero. Moreover, a fraction of individuals - including blood donors - do not disclose PrEP use according to various surveys and measurements of HIV PrEP analytes. Additionally, viremia and seroconversion may remain undetectable or close to the limit of detection for a long time after cessation of PrEP, particularly with long-acting antiretrovirals. Therefore, current recommendations to defer donors for at least 3 months after the last dose of oral PrEP or 2 years for long-acting PrEP appear justified, as they safeguard the blood supply and public trust toward the system. These recommendations help to safeguard blood safety and public trust in the blood supply.

Tuning of CD40-CD154 interactions in human B-lymphocyte activation: a broad array of in vitro models for a complex in vivo situation.

Naive and memory B-lymphocyte populations can be activated through the binding of CD154 to CD40, a receptor that is constitutively expressed on the surface of these cells. Models based on the in vitro stimulation of human B lymphocytes through CD40 have greatly contributed to our understanding of the human immune response in healthy individuals and patients suffering from immune disorders. The nature of the engineered CD40 ligands is as diverse as the in vitro models used in studies of CD40-activated B lymphocytes. Monoclonal anti-CD40 antibodies, recombinant CD154 proteins, soluble CD154(+) membranes as well as CD154(+) cell lines have turned out to be very useful tools, and are still in use today. As for any receptor-ligand interaction, parameters such as duration and strength of contact, timing, affinity, and receptor density are major determinants of CD40 binding by CD154 or anti-CD40. Furthermore, variation in the intensity of CD40 stimulation has been shown to influence proliferation, differentiation and immunoglobulin secretion of human hybridomas, B-cell lines, tonsil and blood B lymphocytes. The objective of this review is to present an overview of the great diversity of CD40 agonists used in in vitro models of B-lymphocyte activation, with a particular emphasis on variations in the resulting strength of CD40 signaling generated by these models. A better understanding of these models could open up new avenues for the rational use of human B lymphocytes as antigen-presenting cells in cellular therapies.

Characterization of blood components prepared from whole-blood donations after a 24-hour hold with the platelet-rich plasma method.

BACKGROUND: The preparation of platelet (PLT) concentrates (PCs) from PLT-rich plasma (PRP) requires that whole blood (WB) be processed within 8 hours of collection. Increasing WB storage time to 24 hours would be logistically attractive. This study compares the in vitro quality of blood components prepared from WB stored for 8 and 24 hours at room temperature before processing with the PRP method. STUDY DESIGN AND METHODS: WB units were collected from ABO-matched blood donors. To reduce individual variations, paired donations were drawn in parallel, pooled, and split back in the collection bag. One unit was held for 6 to 8 hours and the other for 22 to 24 hours at 20 to 24 degrees C. Prestorage leukoreduced components were prepared with the PRP as intermediate product and analyzed during storage. RESULTS: RBC units prepared after an 8- or 24-hour hold were comparable in terms of hemolysis, sodium, pH, and ATP levels. RBC 2,3- diphosphoglycerate (2,3-DPG) was significantly lower in RBCs prepared from 24-hour hold donations immediately after processing but not after 20 days of storage. Residual white blood cells were approximately fivefold higher (p < 0.05) in 24-hour RBC units. For PCs, measurements for glucose, ATP, lactate, pH, extent of shape change, hypotonic shock response, and CD62p activation were similar. No differences were observed in the von Willebrand factor, factor (F)V, FVIII, and fibrinogen content of fresh-frozen plasma. CONCLUSIONS: The decrease in FVIII and RBC 2,3-DPG can be acceptable as a compromise to improve blood component logistics, but leukoreduction efficiency must be improved before considering the adoption of an overnight storage of WB before PRP processing.