Is Bone Loss or Devascularization Associated With Recurrence of Osteomyelitis in Wartime Open Tibia Fractures?

BACKGROUND: During recent wars, 26% of combat casualties experienced open fractures and these injuries frequently are complicated by infections, including osteomyelitis. Risk factors for the development of osteomyelitis with combat-related open tibia fractures have been examined, but less information is known about recurrence of this infection, which may result in additional hospitalizations and surgical procedures. QUESTIONS/PURPOSES: (1) What is the risk of osteomyelitis recurrence after wartime open tibia fractures and how does the microbiology compare with initial infections? (2) What factors are associated with osteomyelitis recurrence among patients with open tibia fractures? (3) What clinical characteristics and management approaches are associated with definite/probable osteomyelitis as opposed to possible osteomyelitis and what was the microbiology of these infections? METHODS: A survey of US military personnel injured during deployment between March 2003 and December 2009 identified 215 patients with open tibia fractures, of whom 130 patients developed osteomyelitis and were examined in a retrospective analysis. No patients with bilateral osteomyelitis were included. Twenty-five patients meeting osteomyelitis diagnostic criteria were classified as definite/probable (positive bone culture, direct evidence of infection, or symptoms with culture and/or radiographic evidence) and 105 were classified as possible (bone contamination, organism growth in deep wound tissue, and evidence of local/systemic inflammation). Patients diagnosed with osteomyelitis were treated with débridement and irrigation as well as intravenous antibiotics. Fixation hardware was retained until fracture union, when possible. Osteomyelitis recurrence was defined as a subsequent osteomyelitis diagnosis at the original site ≥ 30 days after completion of initial treatment. This followup period was chosen based on the definition of recurrence so as to include as many patients as possible for analysis. Factors associated with osteomyelitis recurrence were assessed using univariate analysis in a subset of the population with ≥ 30 days of followup. Patients who had an amputation at or proximal to the knee after the initial osteomyelitis were not included in the recurrence assessment. RESULTS: Of 112 patients meeting the criteria for assessment of recurrence, 31 (28%) developed an osteomyelitis recurrence, of whom seven of 25 (28%) had definite/probable and 24 of 87 (28%) had possible classifications for their initial osteomyelitis diagnosis. Risk of osteomyelitis recurrence was associated with missing or devascularized bone (recurrence, 14 of 31 [47%]; nonrecurrence, 22 of 81 [28%]; hazard ratio [HR], 3.94; 1.12-13.81; p = 0.032) and receipt of antibiotics for 22-56 days (recurrence, 20 of 31 [65%]; nonrecurrence: 37 of 81 [46%]; HR, 2.81; 1.05-7.49; p = 0.039). Compared with possible osteomyelitis, definite/probable osteomyelitis was associated with localized swelling at the bone site (13 of 25 [52%] versus 28 of 105 [27%]; risk ratio [RR], 1.95 [1.19-3.19]; p = 0.008) and less extensive skin and soft tissue injury at the time of trauma (9 of 22 [41%; three definite/probably patients missing data] versus 13 of 104 [13%; one possible patient missing data]; RR, 3.27 [1.60-6.69]; p = 0.001). Most osteomyelitis infections were polymicrobial (14 of 23 [61%; two patients with missing data] for definite/probable patients and 62 of 105 [59%] for possible patients; RR, 1.03 [0.72-1.48]; p = 0.870). More of the definite/probable patients received vancomycin (64%) compared with the possible patients (41%; p = 0.046), and the duration of polymyxin use was longer (median, 38 days versus 16 days, p = 0.018). Time to definitive fracture fixation was not different between the groups. CONCLUSIONS: Recurrent osteomyelitis after open tibia fractures is common. In a univariate model, patients with an intermediate amount of bone loss and those treated with antibiotics for 22 to 56 days were more likely to experience osteomyelitis recurrence. Because only univariate analysis was possible, these findings should be considered preliminary. Osteomyelitis recurrence rates were similar, regardless of initial osteomyelitis classification, indicating that diagnoses of possible osteomyelitis should be treated aggressively. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Level III, therapeutic study.

Posttraumatic cysts after pediatric fracture.

BACKGROUND: Pediatric postfracture cystic bone lesions are most commonly found on routine follow-up radiographs of distal radius fractures. After their discovery, there is often a discussion of the need for further radiologic imaging or operative intervention. METHODS: We present 3 cases in which all the 3 pediatric patients had a history of a healing fracture and had the lesions diagnosed incidentally on average 3 months after initial injury. RESULTS: These similar cases demonstrate the nearly identical radiographic characteristics of postfracture cystic lesions of the distal radius. The radiographs consistently demonstrate a well-circumscribed lytic lesion without surrounding sclerosis (geographic 1B) within the elevated periosteum of the healing fracture. These lesions appeared to sit on top of the previous cortex without causing any erosion or having any other aggressive characteristics. All of the lesions were consistent with adipose tissue on all sequence including T1, T2, and fat-suppressed T1-weighted imaging. CONCLUSIONS: Although postfracture pediatric cysts are apparently rare, we feel that there is sufficient literature to support that there is no longer any need for advanced imaging modalities to diagnose these lesions in the setting of an appropriate history without confounding variables and classic radiographic appearance. Biopsy, in particular, is decidedly unnecessary, unless the lesion progresses on subsequent radiographs or demonstrates more overtly aggressive initial features. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: This will allow for faster diagnosis with substantially less burden on the health care system and decreased the stress that is placed on the patients and families involved by requiring magnetic resonance imaging with or without conscious sedation in order to make the final diagnosis. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: IV-case series.

IDCRP Combat-Related Extremity Wound Infection Research.

INTRODUCTION: Extremity trauma is the most common battlefield injury, resulting in a high frequency of combat-related extremity wound infections (CEWIs). As these infections are associated with substantial morbidity and may impact wounded warriors long after initial hospitalization, CEWIs have been a focus of the Infectious Disease Clinical Research Program (IDCRP). Herein, we review findings of CEWI research conducted through the IDCRP and discuss future and ongoing analyses. METHODS: Military personnel with deployment-related trauma sustained between 2009 and 2014 were examined in retrospective analyses through the observational Trauma Infectious Disease Outcomes Study (TIDOS). Characteristics of wounded warriors with ≥1 open extremity wound were assessed, focusing on injury patterns and infection risk factors. Through a separate trauma-associated osteomyelitis study, military personnel with combat-related open fractures of the long bones (tibia, femur, and upper extremity) sustained between 2003 and 2009 were examined to identify osteomyelitis risk factors. RESULTS: Among 1,271 wounded warriors with ≥1 open extremity wound, 16% were diagnosed with a CEWI. When assessed by their most severe extremity injury (i.e., amputation, open fracture, or open soft-tissue wound), patients with amputations had the highest proportion of infections (47% of 212 patients with traumatic amputations). Factors related to injury pattern, mechanism, and severity were independent predictors of CEWIs during initial hospitalization. Having a non-extremity infection at least 4 days before CEWI diagnosis was associated with reduced likelihood of CEWI development. After hospital discharge, 28% of patients with extremity trauma had a new or recurrent CEWI during follow-up. Risk factors for the development of CEWIs during follow-up included injury pattern, having either a CEWI or other infection during initial hospitalization, and receipt of antipseudomonal penicillin for ≥7 days. A reduced likelihood for CEWIs during follow-up was associated with a hospitalization duration of 15-30 days. Under the retrospective osteomyelitis risk factor analysis, patients developing osteomyelitis had higher open fracture severity based on Gustilo-Anderson (GA) and the Orthopaedic Trauma Association classification schemes and more frequent traumatic amputations compared to open fracture patients without osteomyelitis. Recurrence of osteomyelitis was also common (28% of patients with open tibia fractures had a recurrent episode). Although osteomyelitis risk factors differed between the tibia, femur, and upper extremity groups, sustaining an amputation, use of antibiotic beads, and being injured in the earlier years of the study (before significant practice pattern changes) were consistent predictors. Other risk factors included GA fracture severity ≥IIIb, blast injuries, foreign body at fracture site (with/without orthopedic implant), moderate/severe muscle damage and/or necrosis, and moderate/severe skin/soft-tissue damage. For upper extremity open fractures, initial stabilization following evacuation from the combat zone was associated with a reduced likelihood of osteomyelitis. CONCLUSIONS: Forthcoming studies will examine the effectiveness of common antibiotic regimens for managing extremity deep soft-tissue infections to improve clinical outcomes of combat casualties and support development of clinical practice guidelines for CEWI treatment. The long-term impact of extremity trauma and resultant infections will be further investigated through both Department of Defense and Veterans Affairs follow-up, as well as examination of the impact on comorbidities and mental health/social factors.

Osteomyelitis Risk Factors Related to Combat Trauma Open Upper Extremity Fractures: A Case-Control Analysis.

OBJECTIVE: To determine risk factors for osteomyelitis in US military personnel with combat-related, extremity long bone (humerus, radius, and ulna) open fractures. DESIGN: Retrospective observational case-control study. SETTING: US military regional hospital in Germany and tertiary care military hospitals in the United States (2003-2009). PATIENTS/PARTICIPANTS: Sixty-four patients with open upper extremity fractures who met diagnostic osteomyelitis criteria (medical record review verification) were classified as cases. Ninety-six patients with open upper extremity fractures who did not meet osteomyelitis diagnostic criteria were included as controls. INTERVENTION: Not applicable. MAIN OUTCOME MEASUREMENTS: Multivariable odds ratios (ORs; 95% confidence interval [CI]). RESULTS: Among patients with surgical implants, osteomyelitis cases had longer time to definitive orthopaedic surgery compared with controls (median: 26 vs. 11 days; P < 0.001); however, there was no significant difference with timing of radiographic union. Being injured between 2003 and 2006, use of antibiotic beads, Gustilo-Anderson [GA] fracture classification (highest with GA-IIIb: [OR: 22.20; CI: 3.60-136.95]), and Orthopaedic Trauma Association Open Fracture Classification skin variable (highest with extensive degloving [OR: 15.61; CI: 3.25-74.86]) were independently associated with osteomyelitis risk. Initial stabilization occurring outside of the combat zone was associated with reduced risk of osteomyelitis. CONCLUSIONS: Open upper extremity fractures with severe soft-tissue damage have the highest risk of developing osteomyelitis. The associations with injuries sustained 2003-2006 and location of initial stabilization are likely from evolving trauma system recommendations and practice patterns during the timeframe. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Prognostic Level III. See Instructions for Authors for a complete description of levels of evidence.

Osteomyelitis Risk Factors Related to Combat Trauma Open Femur Fractures: A Case-Control Analysis.

OBJECTIVES: To identify the risk factors for osteomyelitis development in US military personnel with combat-related, open femur fractures? DESIGN: Retrospective observational case-control study. SETTING: US military regional hospital in Germany and tertiary care hospitals in United States (2003-2009). PATIENTS/PARTICIPANTS: One hundred three patients with open femur fractures who met diagnostic osteomyelitis criteria (medical record review verification) were classified as cases. Sixty-four patients with open femur fractures who did not meet osteomyelitis diagnostic criteria were included as controls. MAIN OUTCOME MEASUREMENTS: The main outcome measurements were multivariable odds ratios (ORs) and 95% confidence interval (CI). RESULTS: Among patients with surgical implants, osteomyelitis cases had significantly longer time to definitive orthopaedic surgery compared with controls (median: 21 vs. 13 days). Independent predictors for osteomyelitis risk were Gustilo-Anderson classification (transfemoral amputation OR: 19.3; CI: 3.0-123.0) and Orthopaedic Trauma Association Open Fracture Classification for muscle loss (OR: 5.7; CI: 1.3-25.1) and dead muscle (OR: 32.9; CI: 5.4-199.1). Being injured between 2003 and 2006, antibiotic bead use, and foreign body plus implant(s) at fracture site were also risk factors. CONCLUSIONS: Patients with open femur fractures resulting in significant muscle damage have the highest osteomyelitis risk. Foreign body contamination was only significant when an implant was present. Increased risk with antibiotic bead use is likely a surrogate for clinical suspicion of contamination with complex wounds. The timeframe association is likely due to changing trauma system patterns around 2006-2007 (eg, increased negative pressure wound therapy, reduced high-pressure irrigation, decreased crystalloid use, and delayed definitive internal fixations). LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Prognostic Level III. See Instructions for Authors for a complete description of levels of evidence.

Osteomyelitis Risk Factors Related to Combat Trauma Open Tibia Fractures: A Case-Control Analysis.

OBJECTIVES: We assessed osteomyelitis risk factors in US military personnel with combat-related open tibia fractures (2003-2009). METHODS: Patients with open tibia fractures who met the diagnostic criteria of osteomyelitis were identified as cases using Military Health System data and verified through medical record review. Controls were patients with open tibia fractures who did not meet osteomyelitis criteria. The Gustilo-Andersen fracture classification scheme was modified to include transtibial amputations (TTAs) as the most severe level. Logistic regression multivariable odds ratios [ORs; 95% confidence intervals (CI)] were assessed. RESULTS: A total of 130 tibia osteomyelitis cases and 85 controls were identified. Excluding patients with TTAs, osteomyelitis cases had significantly longer time to radiographic union compared with controls (median: 210 vs. 165 days). Blast injuries, antibiotic bead utilization, ≥ Gustilo-Andersen-IIIb fractures [highest risk with TTA (OR: 15.10; CI: 3.22-71.07)], and foreign body at the fracture site were significantly associated with developing osteomyelitis. In a separate model, the Orthopaedic Trauma Association Open Fracture Classification muscle variable was significant with increasing risk from muscle loss (OR: 5.62; CI: 2.21-14.25) to dead muscle (OR: 8.46; CI: 3.31-21.64). When TTAs were excluded, significant risk factors were similar and included sustaining an injury between 2003 and 2006. CONCLUSIONS: Patients with severe blast trauma resulting in significant muscle damage are at the highest risk for osteomyelitis. The period association coincides with a time frame when several trauma system practice changes were initiated (eg, increased negative pressure wound therapy, decreased high-pressure irrigation, and reduced crystalloid use). LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Prognostic Level III. See Instructions for Authors for a complete description of levels of evidence.

Early Complications and Outcomes in Combat Injury-Related Invasive Fungal Wound Infections: A Case-Control Analysis.

OBJECTIVE: Clinicians have anecdotally noted that combat-related invasive fungal wound infections (IFIs) lead to residual limb shortening, additional days and operative procedures before initial wound closure, and high early complication rates. We evaluated the validity of these observations and identified risk factors that may impact time to initial wound closure. DESIGN: Retrospective review and case-control analysis. SETTING: Military hospitals. PATIENTS/PARTICIPANTS: US military personnel injured during combat operations (2009-2011). The IFI cases were identified based on the presence of recurrent, necrotic extremity wounds with mold growth in culture, and/or histopathologic fungal evidence. Non-IFI controls were matched on injury pattern and severity. In a supplemental matching analysis, non-IFI controls were also matched by blood volume transfused within 24 hours of injury. INTERVENTION: None. MAIN OUTCOME MEASUREMENTS: Amputation revision rate and loss of functional levels. RESULTS: Seventy-one IFI cases (112 fungal-infected extremity wounds) were identified and matched to 160 control patients (315 non-IFI extremity wounds). The IFI wounds resulted in significantly more changes in amputation level (P < 0.001). Additionally, significantly (P < 0.001) higher number of operative procedures and longer duration to initial wound closure were associated with IFI. A shorter duration to initial wound closure was significantly associated with wounds lacking IFIs (Hazard ratio: 1.53; 95% confidence interval, 1.17-2.01). The supplemental matching analysis found similar results. CONCLUSIONS: Our analysis indicates that IFIs adversely impact wound healing and patient recovery, requiring more frequent proximal amputation revisions and leading to higher early complication rates. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Prognostic Level III. See Instructions for Authors for a complete description of levels of evidence.

Combat-Related Hemipelvectomy: 14 Cases, a Review of the Literature and Lessons Learned.

OBJECTIVES: Trauma-related hemipelvectomy is a rare and often fatal injury that poses a number of challenges to the treating surgeon. Our objective was to identify patient and injury characteristics that have proven difficult to treat, and to describe management techniques. DESIGN: Retrospective review. SETTING: Level II trauma center. PATIENTS: Thirteen consecutive patients who underwent 14 combat-related hemipelvectomies between 2001 and 2013. INTERVENTION: We reviewed our prospective trauma registry, along with the patients' medical records, radiographs, and clinical photographs. MAIN OUTCOME MEASUREMENTS: Injury severity scores, required surgical procedures, ambulatory status, and bowel and bladder function. RESULTS: Hemipelvectomy was indicated for insufficient soft tissue coverage, complicated by life-threatening local infection and/or a dysvascular hemipelvis. Five patients underwent resection for angioinvasive fungal infections. All patients sustained a genitourinary injury, with 7 requiring suprapubic catheters and all undergoing diverting colostomy. After a median of 2 years of follow-up, 2 patients had normal urinary continence and 3 regained fecal continence. The surviving patients required a mean of 44 operations. One patient returned to community ambulation. CONCLUSIONS: This is the largest published series of trauma-related hemipelvectomies. Our lessons learned may benefit civilian surgeons who are confronted with high-energy open injuries to the pelvic girdle. Although the decision to perform hemipelvectomy should not be taken lightly, this procedure can be lifesaving and should be performed in a timely fashion when indicated. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Therapeutic Level IV. See Instructions for Authors for a complete description of levels of evidence.

The utilization of a suture bridge construct for tibiofibular instability during transtibial amputation without distal bridge synostosis creation.

Symptomatic distal tibiofibular instability is a known complication of trauma-related transtibial amputations. Overt proximal tibiofibular dislocations, which are easily recognized on routine radiographs, may occur concurrently with the traumatic injury or amputation. More commonly, however, the proximal tibiofibular joint remains structurally intact in the presence of distal instability due to the loss of the distal syndesmotic structures and damage to the interosseous membrane, resulting in fibular angulation and distal tibiofibular diastasis. Some authors have espoused treating this instability with the creation of a distal tibiofibular bridge synostosis (the so-called Ertl procedure or modifications there of) to prevent potentially painful discordant motion and to minimize the prominence of the residual distal fibula. Recent studies, however, have suggested an increase in complication and reoperation rates in transtibial amputations that received a bridge synostosis compared with standard transtibial amputations. Additionally, although there are several described techniques for bridge synostosis creation, most are dependent on having sufficient remaining fibula to construct the bone bridge without unnecessary shortening of the tibia; however, sufficient residual fibula is not always available after traumatic and trauma-related amputations. We propose a technique utilizing a suture bridge to restore tibiofibular stability when performing transtibial amputations in patients with proximal tibiofibular dislocations or distal diastasis, avoiding the potential need for a distal bridge synostosis.

Use of 3-dimensional stereolithographic polymer models for heterotopic ossification surgical excision.

Heterotopic ossification is a known complication of traumatic injuries. To minimize iatrogenic complications during excision, an understanding of anatomic relationships is essential. Current imaging modalities, such as computed tomography and plain radiographs, are limited to providing a 2-dimensional representation of a 3-dimensional problem. This study describes the benefits of 3-dimensional stereolithography in the perioperative management of symptomatic heterotopic ossification using models were that were fabricated based on high-resolution computed tomography scans. The models facilitated heterotopic ossification excision through frequent intraoperative reference, allowing the authors to avoid iatrogenic neurovascular injuries.