tRNA-m1A modification promotes T cell expansion via efficient MYC protein synthesis.

Naive T cells undergo radical changes during the transition from dormant to hyperactive states upon activation, which necessitates de novo protein production via transcription and translation. However, the mechanism whereby T cells globally promote translation remains largely unknown. Here, we show that on exit from quiescence, T cells upregulate transfer RNA (tRNA) m1A58 'writer' proteins TRMT61A and TRMT6, which confer m1A58 RNA modification on a specific subset of early expressed tRNAs. These m1A-modified early tRNAs enhance translation efficiency, enabling rapid and necessary synthesis of MYC and of a specific group of key functional proteins. The MYC protein then guides the exit of naive T cells from a quiescent state into a proliferative state and promotes rapid T cell expansion after activation. Conditional deletion of the Trmt61a gene in mouse CD4+ T cells causes MYC protein deficiency and cell cycle arrest, disrupts T cell expansion upon cognate antigen stimulation and alleviates colitis in a mouse adoptive transfer colitis model. Our study elucidates for the first time, to our knowledge, the in vivo physiological roles of tRNA-m1A58 modification in T cell-mediated pathogenesis and reveals a new mechanism of tRNA-m1A58-controlled T cell homeostasis and signal-dependent translational control of specific key proteins.

m6A Modification Prevents Formation of Endogenous Double-Stranded RNAs and Deleterious Innate Immune Responses during Hematopoietic Development.

N6-methyladenosine (m6A) is the most abundant RNA modification, but little is known about its role in mammalian hematopoietic development. Here, we show that conditional deletion of the m6A writer METTL3 in murine fetal liver resulted in hematopoietic failure and perinatal lethality. Loss of METTL3 and m6A activated an aberrant innate immune response, mediated by the formation of endogenous double-stranded RNAs (dsRNAs). The aberrantly formed dsRNAs were long, highly m6A modified in their native state, characterized by low folding energies, and predominantly protein coding. We identified coinciding activation of pattern recognition receptor pathways normally tasked with the detection of foreign dsRNAs. Disruption of the aberrant immune response via abrogation of downstream Mavs or Rnasel signaling partially rescued the observed hematopoietic defects in METTL3-deficient cells in vitro and in vivo. Our results suggest that m6A modification protects against endogenous dsRNA formation and a deleterious innate immune response during mammalian hematopoietic development.

MAP3K2-regulated intestinal stromal cells define a distinct stem cell niche.

Intestinal stromal cells are known to modulate the propagation and differentiation of intestinal stem cells1,2. However, the precise cellular and molecular mechanisms by which this diverse stromal cell population maintains tissue homeostasis and repair are poorly understood. Here we describe a subset of intestinal stromal cells, named MAP3K2-regulated intestinal stromal cells (MRISCs), and show that they are the primary cellular source of the WNT agonist R-spondin 1 following intestinal injury in mice. MRISCs, which are epigenetically and transcriptomically distinct from subsets of intestinal stromal cells that have previously been reported3-6, are strategically localized at the bases of colon crypts, and function to maintain LGR5+ intestinal stem cells and protect against acute intestinal damage through enhanced R-spondin 1 production. Mechanistically, this MAP3K2 specific function is mediated by a previously unknown reactive oxygen species (ROS)-MAP3K2-ERK5-KLF2 axis to enhance production of R-spondin 1. Our results identify MRISCs as a key component of an intestinal stem cell niche that specifically depends on MAP3K2 to augment WNT signalling for the regeneration of damaged intestine.

N6 - Methyladenosine defines a new checkpoint in γδ T cell development.

T cells, which are derived from hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs), are the most important components of adaptive immune system. Based on the expression of αß and γδ receptors, T cells are mainly divided into αß and γδ T cells. In the thymus, they share common progenitor cells, while undergoing a series of well-characterized and different developmental processes. N6 -Methyladenosine (m6 A), one of the most abundant modifications in mRNAs, plays critical roles in cell development and maintenance of function. Recently, we have demonstrated that the depletion of m6 A demethylase ALKBH5 in lymphocytes specifically induces an expansion of γδ T cells through the regulation of Jag1/Notch2 signaling, but not αß T cells, indicating a checkpoint role of ALKBH5 and m6 A modification in the early development of γδ T cells. Based on previous studies, many key pathway molecules, which exert dominant roles in γδ T cell fate determination, have been identified as the targets regulated by m6 A modification. In this review, we mainly summarize the potential regulation between m6 A modification and these key signaling molecules in the γδ T cell lineage commitment, to provide new perspectives in the checkpoint of γδ T cell development.

RNA m6A demethylase ALKBH5 regulates the development of γδ T cells.

γδ T cells are an abundant T cell population at the mucosa and are important in providing immune surveillance as well as maintaining tissue homeostasis. However, despite γδ T cells' origin in the thymus, detailed mechanisms regulating γδ T cell development remain poorly understood. N6-methyladenosine (m6A) represents one of the most common posttranscriptional modifications of messenger RNA (mRNA) in mammalian cells, but whether it plays a role in γδ T cell biology is still unclear. Here, we show that depletion of the m6A demethylase ALKBH5 in lymphocytes specifically induces an expansion of γδ T cells, which confers enhanced protection against gastrointestinal Salmonella typhimurium infection. Mechanistically, loss of ALKBH5 favors the development of γδ T cell precursors by increasing the abundance of m6A RNA modification in thymocytes, which further reduces the expression of several target genes including Notch signaling components Jagged1 and Notch2. As a result, impairment of Jagged1/Notch2 signaling contributes to enhanced proliferation and differentiation of γδ T cell precursors, leading to an expanded mature γδ T cell repertoire. Taken together, our results indicate a checkpoint role of ALKBH5 and m6A modification in the regulation of γδ T cell early development.

The RNA helicase Dhx15 mediates Wnt-induced antimicrobial protein expression in Paneth cells.

RNA helicases play roles in various essential biological processes such as RNA splicing and editing. Recent in vitro studies show that RNA helicases are involved in immune responses toward viruses, serving as viral RNA sensors or immune signaling adaptors. However, there is still a lack of in vivo data to support the tissue- or cell-specific function of RNA helicases owing to the lethality of mice with complete knockout of RNA helicases; further, there is a lack of evidence about the antibacterial role of helicases. Here, we investigated the in vivo role of Dhx15 in intestinal antibacterial responses by generating mice that were intestinal epithelial cell (IEC)-specific deficient for Dhx15 (Dhx15 f/f Villin1-cre, Dhx15ΔIEC). These mice are susceptible to infection with enteric bacteria Citrobacter rodentium (C. rod), owing to impaired α-defensin production by Paneth cells. Moreover, mice with Paneth cell-specific depletion of Dhx15 (Dhx15 f/f Defensinα6-cre, Dhx15ΔPaneth) are more susceptible to DSS (dextran sodium sulfate)-induced colitis, which phenocopy Dhx15ΔIEC mice, due to the dysbiosis of the intestinal microbiota. In humans, reduced protein levels of Dhx15 are found in ulcerative colitis (UC) patients. Taken together, our findings identify a key regulator of Wnt-induced α-defensins in Paneth cells and offer insights into its role in the antimicrobial response as well as intestinal inflammation.

RNA modification-mediated translational control in immune cells.

RNA modifications play a vital role in multiple pathways of mRNA metabolism, and translational regulation is essential for immune cells to promptly respond to stimuli and adapt to the microenvironment. N6-methyladenosine (m6A) methylation, which is the most abundant mRNA modification in eukaryotes, primarily functions in the regulation of RNA splicing and degradation. However, the role of m6Amethylation in translational control and its underlying mechanism remain controversial. The role of m6A methylation in translation regulation in immune cells has received relatively limited attention. In this review, we aim to provide a comprehensive summary of current studies on the translational regulation of m6A modifications and recent advances in understanding the translational control regulated by RNA modifications during the immune response. Furthermore, we envision the possible pathways through which m6A modifications may be involved in the regulation of immune cell function via translational control.

m6A mRNA methylation controls T cell homeostasis by targeting the IL-7/STAT5/SOCS pathways.

N6-methyladenosine (m6A) is the most common and abundant messenger RNA modification, modulated by 'writers', 'erasers' and 'readers' of this mark. In vitro data have shown that m6A influences all fundamental aspects of mRNA metabolism, mainly mRNA stability, to determine stem cell fates. However, its in vivo physiological function in mammals and adult mammalian cells is still unknown. Here we show that the deletion of m6A 'writer' protein METTL3 in mouse T cells disrupts T cell homeostasis and differentiation. In a lymphopaenic mouse adoptive transfer model, naive Mettl3-deficient T cells failed to undergo homeostatic expansion and remained in the naive state for up to 12 weeks, thereby preventing colitis. Consistent with these observations, the mRNAs of SOCS family genes encoding the STAT signalling inhibitory proteins SOCS1, SOCS3 and CISH were marked by m6A, exhibited slower mRNA decay and showed increased mRNAs and levels of protein expression in Mettl3-deficient naive T cells. This increased SOCS family activity consequently inhibited IL-7-mediated STAT5 activation and T cell homeostatic proliferation and differentiation. We also found that m6A has important roles for inducible degradation of Socs mRNAs in response to IL-7 signalling in order to reprogram naive T cells for proliferation and differentiation. Our study elucidates for the first time, to our knowledge, the in vivo biological role of m6A modification in T-cell-mediated pathogenesis and reveals a novel mechanism of T cell homeostasis and signal-dependent induction of mRNA degradation.

Nlrp9b inflammasome restricts rotavirus infection in intestinal epithelial cells.

Rotavirus, a leading cause of severe gastroenteritis and diarrhoea in young children, accounts for around 215,000 deaths annually worldwide. Rotavirus specifically infects the intestinal epithelial cells in the host small intestine and has evolved strategies to antagonize interferon and NF-κB signalling, raising the question as to whether other host factors participate in antiviral responses in intestinal mucosa. The mechanism by which enteric viruses are sensed and restricted in vivo, especially by NOD-like receptor (NLR) inflammasomes, is largely unknown. Here we uncover and mechanistically characterize the NLR Nlrp9b that is specifically expressed in intestinal epithelial cells and restricts rotavirus infection. Our data show that, via RNA helicase Dhx9, Nlrp9b recognizes short double-stranded RNA stretches and forms inflammasome complexes with the adaptor proteins Asc and caspase-1 to promote the maturation of interleukin (Il)-18 and gasdermin D (Gsdmd)-induced pyroptosis. Conditional depletion of Nlrp9b or other inflammasome components in the intestine in vivo resulted in enhanced susceptibility of mice to rotavirus replication. Our study highlights an important innate immune signalling pathway that functions in intestinal epithelial cells and may present useful targets in the modulation of host defences against viral pathogens.

Resemble and Inhibit: when RLR meets TGF-ß.

In this issue, Xu et al. (2014) show that innate antiviral RIG-I-like receptors (RLR) signaling represses TGF-ß-induced growth inhibition, epithelial-mesenchyme transition (EMT), and regulatory T cell (Treg) differentiation via IRF3-mediated Smads function.

Cross-talk of four types of RNA modification writers defines tumor microenvironment and pharmacogenomic landscape in colorectal cancer.

BACKGROUND: The four major RNA adenosine modifications, i.e., m6A, m1A, alternative polyadenylation, and adenosine-to-inosine RNA editing, are mediated mostly by the "writer" enzymes and constitute critical mechanisms of epigenetic regulation in immune response and tumorigenesis. However, the cross-talk and potential roles of these "writers" in the tumor microenvironment (TME), drug sensitivity, and immunotherapy remain unknown. METHODS: We systematically characterized mRNA expression and genetic alterations of 26 RNA modification "writers" in colorectal cancer (CRC), and evaluated their expression pattern in 1697 CRC samples from 8 datasets. We used an unsupervised clustering method to assign the samples into two patterns of expression of RNA modification "writers". Subsequently, we constructed the RNA modification "writer" Score (WM_Score) model based on differentially expressed genes (DEGs) responsible for the RNA modification patterns to quantify the RNA modification-related subtypes of individual tumors. Furthermore, we performed association analysis for WM_Score and characteristics of TME, consensus molecular subtypes (CMSs), clinical features, transcriptional and post-transcriptional regulation, drug response, and the efficacy of immunotherapy. RESULTS: We demonstrated that multi-layer alterations of RNA modification "writer" are associated with patient survival and TME cell-infiltrating characteristics. We identified two distinct RNA modification patterns, characterized by a high and a low WM_Score. The WM_Score-high group was associated with worse patient overall survival and with the infiltration of inhibitory immune cells, such as M2 macrophages, EMT activation, and metastasis, while the WM_Score-low group was associated with a survival advantage, apoptosis, and cell cycle signaling pathways. WM_Score correlated highly with the regulation of transcription and post-transcriptional events contributing to the development of CRC. In response to anti-cancer drugs, WM_Score highly negatively correlated (drug sensitive) with drugs which targeted oncogenic related pathways, such as MAPK, EGFR, and mTOR signaling pathways, positively correlated (drug resistance) with drugs which targeted in apoptosis and cell cycle. Importantly, the WM_Score was associated with the therapeutic efficacy of PD-L1 blockade, suggesting that the development of potential drugs targeting these "writers" to aid the clinical benefits of immunotherapy. CONCLUSIONS: Our study is the first to provide a comprehensive analysis of four RNA modifications in CRC. We revealed the potential function of these writers in TME, transcriptional and post-transcriptional events, and identified their therapeutic liability in targeted therapy and immunotherapy. This work highlights the cross-talk and potential clinical utility of RNA modification "writers" in cancer therapy.

Contamination, Fractionation and Biological Risk Related to Metals in Surface Sediments from the Largest Deep Freshwater Lake in China.

The toxicity and mobility of metals in the environment are driven by their specific chemical forms and binding states. However, heavy metal fractionation in sediments from plateau deep lakes in China is rare. This study analyzed surface sediments collected from Fuxian Lake, the largest deep freshwater lake in China; parameters examined included total metal concentrations, chemical partitioning, and biological risk assessment. The average total concentrations (mg/kg) were 7.9 for Cd, 97.6 for Pb, 102.8 for Cr, 60.8 for Ni, 73.6 for Cu, and 112.9 for Zn; these levels were significantly higher than their corresponding background values. Cd was preferentially associated with the acid-soluble fraction; significant portions of the Pb, Cr, Ni, Cu, and Zn were mainly associated with the residual fractions. Overall, surface sediments of Fuxian Lake were associated with a 21% incidence of toxicity based on the mean effects range-median quotient. Cd was mainly at high or very high risk levels, and Cu and Zn were mainly at medium or high risk levels based on the risk assessment code (RAC).

Insulators target active genes to transcription factories and polycomb-repressed genes to polycomb bodies.

Polycomb bodies are foci of Polycomb proteins in which different Polycomb target genes are thought to co-localize in the nucleus, looping out from their chromosomal context. We have shown previously that insulators, not Polycomb response elements (PREs), mediate associations among Polycomb Group (PcG) targets to form Polycomb bodies. Here we use live imaging and 3C interactions to show that transgenes containing PREs and endogenous PcG-regulated genes are targeted by insulator proteins to different nuclear structures depending on their state of activity. When two genes are repressed, they co-localize in Polycomb bodies. When both are active, they are targeted to transcription factories in a fashion dependent on Trithorax and enhancer specificity as well as the insulator protein CTCF. In the absence of CTCF, assembly of Polycomb bodies is essentially reduced to those representing genomic clusters of Polycomb target genes. The critical role of Trithorax suggests that stable association with a specialized transcription factory underlies the cellular memory of the active state.

Nature and function of insulator protein binding sites in the Drosophila genome.

Chromatin insulator elements and associated proteins have been proposed to partition eukaryotic genomes into sets of independently regulated domains. Here we test this hypothesis by quantitative genome-wide analysis of insulator protein binding to Drosophila chromatin. We find distinct combinatorial binding of insulator proteins to different classes of sites and uncover a novel type of insulator element that binds CP190 but not any other known insulator proteins. Functional characterization of different classes of binding sites indicates that only a small fraction act as robust insulators in standard enhancer-blocking assays. We show that insulators restrict the spreading of the H3K27me3 mark but only at a small number of Polycomb target regions and only to prevent repressive histone methylation within adjacent genes that are already transcriptionally inactive. RNAi knockdown of insulator proteins in cultured cells does not lead to major alterations in genome expression. Taken together, these observations argue against the concept of a genome partitioned by specialized boundary elements and suggest that insulators are reserved for specific regulation of selected genes.

The crosstalk between enteric nervous system and immune system in intestinal development, homeostasis and diseases.

The gut is the largest digestive and absorptive organ, which is essential for induction of mucosal and systemic immune responses, and maintenance of metabolic-immune homeostasis. The intestinal components contain the epithelium, stromal cells, immune cells, and enteric nervous system (ENS), as well as the outers, such as gut microbiota, metabolites, and nutrients. The dyshomeostasis of intestinal microenvironment induces abnormal intestinal development and functions, even colon diseases including dysplasia, inflammation and tumor. Several recent studies have identified that ENS plays a crucial role in maintaining the immune homeostasis of gastrointestinal (GI) microenvironment. The crosstalk between ENS and immune cells, mainly macrophages, T cells, and innate lymphoid cells (ILCs), has been found to exert important regulatory roles in intestinal tissue programming, homeostasis, function, and inflammation. In this review, we mainly summarize the critical roles of the interactions between ENS and immune cells in intestinal homeostasis during intestinal development and diseases progression, to provide theoretical bases and ideas for the exploration of immunotherapy for gastrointestinal diseases with the ENS as potential novel targets.

The physiological and pathological roles of RNA modifications in T cells.

RNA molecules undergo dynamic chemical modifications in response to various external or cellular stimuli. Some of those modifications have been demonstrated to post-transcriptionally modulate the RNA transcription, localization, stability, translation, and degradation, ultimately tuning the fate decisions and function of mammalian cells, particularly T cells. As a crucial part of adaptive immunity, T cells play fundamental roles in defending against infections and tumor cells. Recent findings have illuminated the importance of RNA modifications in modulating T cell survival, proliferation, differentiation, and functional activities. Therefore, understanding the epi-transcriptomic control of T cell biology enables a potential avenue for manipulating T cell immunity. This review aims to elucidate the physiological and pathological roles of internal RNA modifications in T cell development, differentiation, and functionality drawn from current literature, with the goal of inspiring new insights for future investigations and providing novel prospects for T cell-based immunotherapy.

Transcription Factor Id1 Plays an Essential Role in Th9 Cell Differentiation by Inhibiting Tcf3 and Tcf4.

T helper type 9 (Th9) cells play important roles in immune responses by producing interleukin-9 (IL-9). Several transcription factors are responsible for Th9 cell differentiation; however, transcriptional regulation of Th9 cells is not fully understood. Here, it is shown that Id1 is an essential transcriptional regulator of Th9 cell differentiation. Id1 is induced by IL-4 and TGF-ß. Id1-deficient naïve CD4 T cells fail to differentiate into Th9 cells, and overexpression of Id1 induce expression of IL-9. Mass spectrometry analysis reveals that Id1 interacts with Tcf3 and Tcf4 in Th9 cells. In addition, RNA-sequencing, chromatin immunoprecipitation, and transient reporter assay reveal that Tcf3 and Tcf4 bind to the promoter region of the Il9 gene to suppress its expression, and that Id1 inhibits their function, leading to Th9 differentiation. Finally, Id1-deficient Th9 cells ameliorate airway inflammation in an animal model of asthma. Thus, Id1 is a transcription factor that plays an essential role in Th9 cell differentiation by inhibiting Tcf3 and Tcf4.

m6A mRNA modification potentiates Th17 functions to inflame autoimmunity.

N6-methyladenosine (m6A), the most common and abundant epigenetic RNA modification, governs mRNA metabolism to determine cell differentiation, proliferation and response to stimulation. m6A methyltransferase METTL3 has been reported to control T cell homeostasis and sustain the suppressive function of regulatory T cells (Tregs). However, the role of m6A methyltransferase in other subtypes of T cells remains unknown. T helper cells 17 (Th17) play a pivotal role in host defense and autoimmunity. Here, we found that the loss of METTL3 in T cells caused serious defect of Th17 cell differentiation, and impeded the development of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE). We generated Mettl3f/fIl17aCre mice and observed that METTL3 deficiency in Th17 cells significantly suppressed the development of EAE and displayed less Th17 cell infiltration into central nervous system (CNS). Importantly, we demonstrated that depletion of METTL3 attenuated IL-17A and CCR5 expression by facilitating SOCS3 mRNA stability in Th17 cells, leading to disrupted Th17 cell differentiation and infiltration, and eventually attenuating the process of EAE. Collectively, our results highlight that m6A modification sustains Th17 cell function, which provides new insights into the regulatory network of Th17 cells, and also implies a potential therapeutic target for Th17 cell mediated autoimmune disease.

A Treg-specific long noncoding RNA maintains immune-metabolic homeostasis in aging liver.

Regulatory T (Treg) cells modulate several aging-related liver diseases. However, the molecular mechanisms regulating Treg function in this context are unknown. Here we identified a long noncoding RNA, Altre (aging liver Treg-expressed non-protein-coding RNA), which was specifically expressed in the nucleus of Treg cells and increased with aging. Treg-specific deletion of Altre did not affect Treg homeostasis and function in young mice but caused Treg metabolic dysfunction, inflammatory liver microenvironment, liver fibrosis and liver cancer in aged mice. Depletion of Altre reduced Treg mitochondrial integrity and respiratory capacity, and induced reactive oxygen species accumulation, thus increasing intrahepatic Treg apoptosis in aged mice. Moreover, lipidomic analysis identified a specific lipid species driving Treg aging and apoptosis in the aging liver microenvironment. Mechanistically, Altre interacts with Yin Yang 1 to orchestrate its occupation on chromatin, thereby regulating the expression of a group of mitochondrial genes, and maintaining optimal mitochondrial function and Treg fitness in the liver of aged mice. In conclusion, the Treg-specific nuclear long noncoding RNA Altre maintains the immune-metabolic homeostasis of the aged liver through Yin Yang 1-regulated optimal mitochondrial function and the Treg-sustained liver immune microenvironment. Thus, Altre is a potential therapeutic target for the treatment of liver diseases affecting older adults.

ALKBH5 modulates hematopoietic stem and progenitor cell energy metabolism through m6A modification-mediated RNA stability control.

N6-methyladenosine (m6A) RNA modification controls numerous cellular processes. To what extent these post-transcriptional regulatory mechanisms play a role in hematopoiesis has not been fully elucidated. We here show that the m6A demethylase alkB homolog 5 (ALKBH5) controls mitochondrial ATP production and modulates hematopoietic stem and progenitor cell (HSPC) fitness in an m6A-dependent manner. Loss of ALKBH5 results in increased RNA methylation and instability of oxoglutarate-dehydrogenase (Ogdh) messenger RNA and reduction of OGDH protein levels. Limited OGDH availability slows the tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle with accumulation of α-ketoglutarate (α-KG) and conversion of α-KG into L-2-hydroxyglutarate (L-2-HG). L-2-HG inhibits energy production in both murine and human hematopoietic cells in vitro. Impaired mitochondrial energy production confers competitive disadvantage to HSPCs and limits clonogenicity of Mll-AF9-induced leukemia. Our study uncovers a mechanism whereby the RNA m6A demethylase ALKBH5 regulates the stability of metabolic enzyme transcripts, thereby controlling energy metabolism in hematopoiesis and leukemia.