Occurrence, source, ecological risk, and mitigation of phthalates (PAEs) in agricultural soils and the environment: A review.

The widespread distribution of phthalates (PAEs) in agricultural soils is increasing drastically; however, the environmental occurrence and potential risk of PAEs in agricultural systems remain largely unreviewed. In this study, the occurrence, sources, ecotoxicity, exposure risks, and control measures of PAEs contaminants in agricultural soils are summarized, and it is concluded that PAEs have been widely detected and persist in the soil at concentrations ranging from a few µg/kg to tens of mg/kg, with spatial and vertical variations in China. Agrochemicals and atmospheric deposition have largely contributed to the elevated contamination status of PAEs in soils. In addition, PAEs cause multi-level hazards to soil organisms (survival, oxidative damage, genetic and molecular levels, etc.) and further disrupt the normal ecological functions of soil. The health hazards of PAEs to humans are mainly generated through dietary and non-dietary pathways, and children may be at a higher risk of exposure than adults. Improving the soil microenvironment and promoting biochemical reactions and metabolic processes of PAEs are the main mechanisms for mitigating contamination. Based on these reviews, this study provides a valuable framework for determining future study objectives to reveal environmental risks and reduce the resistance control of PAEs in agricultural soils.

Extreme environmental doses of diisobutyl phthalate exposure induce oxidative stress and DNA damage in earthworms (Eisenia fetida): Evidence at the biochemical and molecular levels.

Diisobutyl phthalate (DIBP), as a plasticizer, is widely used and has caused many extreme soil contamination scenarios, posing potential risks to soil fauna. However, the toxic effects and mechanisms of DIBP on soil fauna remain unclear. In this study, earthworms (Eisenia fetida) were used as model animals to explore the subchronic toxicity of extreme DIBP soil exposure (300, 600, and 1200 mg/kg) for 28 days. The results showed that the level of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and the contents of malondialdehyde (MDA) and 8-hydroxydeoxyguanosine (8-OHdG) in E. fetida were significantly increased during continuous DIBP exposure. In addition, the activities of superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT) and peroxidase (POD) were significantly inhibited while glutathione S-transferase (GST) activity was activated during continuous exposure. Integrated biological response (IBR) analysis showed that DIBP had positive dose-dependent toxicity and negative time-dependent toxicity to E. fetida, and SOD/CAT were selected as sensitive biomarkers. The molecular docking study found that DIBP could stably bind to SOD/CAT through hydrogen bonding, which further proved its sensitivity. This study provides primary data for ecological and environmental risk assessment of extreme dose DIBP soil pollution.

Occurrence of Phthalate Acid Esters (PAEs) in Protected Agriculture Soils and Implications for Human Health Exposure.

This study explored occurrence of phthalic acid esters (PAEs) in protected agriculture soils and assessed their potential health risks to humans. Results showed that DEHP and DBP were the most abundant PAEs congeners, with mean concentrations of 318.68 µg/kg and 137.56 µg/kg, respectively. DOP and BBP concentrations were relatively low, and DMP and DEP were not detected in all samples. DBP concentrations were higher than the allowable concentration standard value. Additionally, soil pH and organic matter were key environmental parameters which may play the vital roles to the occurrence of organic pollutants. Heath risk assessment results indicated that dermal contact was the predominant human exposure route under non-dietary conditions, and children obtained higher health risk scores than adults. In summary, the overall health risk scores were at an acceptable level. These results provide insights for assessing soil environmental safety and ecological risks in protected agricultural soil.

Fate of Phthalic Acid Esters (PAEs) in Typical Greenhouse Soils of Different Cultivation Ages.

An ultrasonic-assisted extraction methodology coupled with gas chromatography-mass spectrometer analytical technique was used to determine concentration of phthalic acid esters (PAEs) in typical greenhouse soil. The results showed that the developed method has a reliable recovery rate (80.78%-112.89%) and a low detection limit (10- 4 mg/kg) which met the requirements of residue determination. The analysis of 32 soil samples revealed that except for dimethyl phthalate, the concentration of other five PAEs was detected and followed the sequence di-(2-ethylhcxyl) phthalate > dibutyl phthalate > di-n-octyl phthalate > butylbenz phthalate > diethyl phthalate. Σ6PAEs concentrations ranged from 136.91 to 1121.74 µg/kg (mean 319.59 µg/kg). PAEs was closely correlated with soil pH and organic matter, but not with cultivation ages which indicates that the increase of cultivation age is not the main reason for the change of soil PAEs concentration.

Correction to: Responses of Microbial Community to Di-(2-ethylhcxyl) Phthalate Contamination in Brown Soil.

In the original publication of the article, there was an error in the abstract section. The incorrect sentence "the dominant microbes in the DEHP-contaminated soil were Sphingomonas and Bacillus, which belonged to the Acidobacteria and Proteobacteriav, respectively" should be revised to "the dominant microbes in the DEHP-contaminated soil were belonged to the Acidobacteria and Proteobacteria, respectively." This has been corrected with this erratum.

Responses of Microbial Community to Di-(2-ethylhcxyl) Phthalate Contamination in Brown Soil.

Di-(2-ethylhcxyl) phthalate (DEHP) is applied as plasticizer, which results in the pollution of environment. In this study, the effects of DEHP on soil microbial functions, structure and genetic diversity were investigated. The concentration of DEHP in the soil were 0, 0.1, 1, 10 and 50 mg/kg, and the experimental period were 28 days. DEHP reduced the quantity, abundance, species dominance and homogeneity of soil microbes during the first 14 days. In addition, microbial utilization efficiency of carbon (carbohydrates, aliphatics, amino acids, metabolites) was impacted after 28 days, though the effects gradually weakened. Based on denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis and clone library analysis, in the presence of DEHP, the dominant microbes in the DEHP-contaminated soil were Sphingomonas and Bacillus, which belonged to the Acidobacteria and Proteobacteriav, respectively. With 0.1 or 1 mg/kg of DEHP, the relative abundances of Acidobacteria were higher, and with 10 or 50 mg/kg of DEHP, the relative abundances of Proteobacteria were higher.

A Deep Learning Approach for MIMO-NOMA Downlink Signal Detection.

As a key candidate technique for fifth-generation (5G) mobile communication systems, non-orthogonal multiple access (NOMA) has attracted considerable attention in the field of wireless communication. Successive interference cancellation (SIC) is the main NOMA detection method applied at receivers for both uplink and downlink NOMA transmissions. However, SIC is limited by the receiver complex and error propagation problems. Toward this end, we explore a high-performance, high-efficiency tool-deep learning (DL). In this paper, we propose a learning method that automatically analyzes the channel state information (CSI) of the communication system and detects the original transmit sequences. In contrast to existing SIC schemes, which must search for the optimal order of the channel gain and remove the signal with higher power allocation factor while detecting a signal with a lower power allocation factor, the proposed deep learning method can combine the channel estimation process with recovery of the desired signal suffering from channel distortion and multiuser signal superposition. Extensive performance simulations were conducted for the proposed MIMO-NOMA-DL system, and the results were compared with those of the conventional SIC method. According to our simulation results, the deep learning method can successfully address channel impairment and achieve good detection performance. In contrast to implementing well-designed detection algorithms, MIMO-NOMA-DL searches for the optimal solution via a neural network (NN). Consequently, deep learning is a powerful and effective tool for NOMA signal detection.

A Two-Stage Kalman Filter-Based Carrier Tracking Loop for Weak GNSS Signals.

For global navigation satellite system receivers, Kalman filter (KF)-based tracking loops show remarkable advantages in terms of tracking sensitivity and robustness compared with conventional tracking loops. However, to improve the tracking sensitivity further, increasing the coherent integration time is necessary, but it is typically limited by the navigation data bit sign transition. Moreover, for standard KF-based tracking receivers, the KF parameters are initialized by the acquired results. However, especially under weak signal conditions, the acquired results have frequency errors that are too large for KF-based tracking to converge rapidly to a steady state. To solve these problems, a two-stage KF-based tracking architecture is proposed to track weaker signals and achieve faster convergence. In the first stage, coarse tracking refines the acquired results and achieves bit synchronization. Then, in the second stage, fine tracking initializes the KF-based tracking by using the coarse tracking results and extends the coherent integration time without the bit sign transition limitation. This architecture not only utilizes the self-tuning technique of the KF to improve the tracking sensitivity, but also adopts the two-stage to reduce the convergence time of the KF-based tracking. Simulation results demonstrate that the proposed method outperforms conventional tracking techniques in terms of tracking sensitivity. Furthermore, the proposed method is compared with the standard KF-based tracking approach, proving that the proposed method converges more rapidly.

Estimation of Interference Arrival Direction Based on a Novel Space-Time Conversion MUSIC Algorithm for GNSS Receivers.

In the estimation of the direction of arrival (DOA) for interference signals, the direction-finding error of the multiple signal classification (MUSIC) algorithm will increase in the case of multiple interferences or when the interfering signal power is weak. In this paper, a space-time conversion MUSIC (STC-MUSIC) algorithm is proposed, and the concept of a focusing parameter is introduced to improve the performance of the DOA estimation. Meanwhile, a method of variable step size peak search is proposed to reduce the amount of calculation of the STC-MUSIC algorithm. The final simulation and experimental results show that the STC-MUSIC algorithm improves the purity of the noise subspace effectively, thus improving the precision and robustness of the DOA estimation for interference signals significantly. In comparison to traditional algorithms, the convergence, stability, root mean square error (RMSE) and other performance characteristics are improved greatly.

Ecotoxicological effects of fertilizers made from pulping waste liquor on earthworm Eisenia fetida.

In recent years, increasing efforts have focused on production of organic-inorganic compound fertilizers using ammonium sulfite pulping waste liquor. However, their ecological effects on soil have not been studied. In this study, earthworm Eisenia fetida was exposed to various doses (0, 0.13, 0.26 and 0.52 kg/m2) for different time (7, 14, 21, and 28 d) to evaluate the effects of fertilizers made from pulping waste liquor, including reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation, antioxidant enzymes activities, glutathione S-transferase enzyme (GST) activity, malondialdehyde (MDA) content and DNA damage. Results showed that there were significant increase of ROS and MDA levels after 14 d, inducing production of antioxidant enzymes (superoxide dismutase (SOD), peroxidase (POD) and catalase (CAT)) as well as GST. Before 14 d, excess ROS and MDA caused damage to the DNA of earthworms, leading to gradual increase of Olive tail moment (OTM) in the comet assay. With the exposure time extended to 28 d, owing to the combined effects of elimination of free radicals by antioxidant enzymes and detoxification enzymes as well as self-repairing function of cells, ROS and MDA levels declined slightly and OTM gradually decreased. In summary, this study indicated that there was a toxicological effect on earthworms when fertilizers made from pulping waste liquor were applied to soil, which needs more attention.

Expanding the insight of ecological risk on the novel chiral pesticide mefentrifluconazole: Mechanism of enantioselective toxicity to earthworms (Eisenia fetida).

Continued application of new chiral fungicide mefentrifluconazole (MFZ) increases its risk to soil ecosystem. However, the toxicity of MFZ enantiomers to soil fauna and whether stereoselectivity exists remains poorly elucidated. Based on multilevel toxicity endpoints and transcriptomics, we investigated the negative effects of racemic, R-(-)-, and S-(+)-MFZ on Eisenia fetida. After exposure to S-(+) configuration at 4 mg/kg for 28 day, its reactive oxygen species levels were elevated by 15.4% compared to R-(-) configuration, inducing enantiospecific oxidative stress and transcriptional aberrations. The S-(+) isomer induced more severe cell membrane damage and apoptosis than the R-(-) isomer, and notably, the selectivity of apoptosis is probably dominated by the mitochondrial pathway. Mechanistically, differential mitochondrial stress lies in: S-(+) isomer specifically up-regulated mitochondrial cellular component compared to R-(-) isomer and identified more serious mitochondrial fission. Furthermore, S-(+) conformation down-regulated biological processes associated with ATP synthesis and metabolism, with specific inhibition of mitochondrial respiratory electron transport chain complex I and IV activity resulting in more severe electron flow disturbances. These ultimately mediated enantioselective ontogenetic process disorders, which were supported at phenotypic (weight loss), genetic, and protein (reverse modulate TCTP and Sox2 expression) levels. Our findings offer an important reference for elucidating the enantioselective toxicological mechanism of MFZ in soil fauna.

Biotoxicity responses of zebrafish in environmentally relevant concentration of di (2-ethylhexyl) phthalate.

As an emerging environmental contaminant, di (2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) is widely present in the aquatic environment, however, the effects and underlying mechanisms of DEHP on the aquatic organisms are poorly understood. This study systematically investigated the ecotoxicity induced by chronic exposure to environmental relevant concentrations of DEHP (0.03 mg/L, 0.1 mg/L, and 0.3 mg/L) on zebrafish brain. Results indicated that DEHP exposure significantly increased the levels of ROS and disturbance of the antioxidant enzymes activities in the brain, which may further enhance lipid peroxidation and DNA damage. Furthermore, acetylcholinesterase activity was first stimulated and inhibited by exposure to DEHP, and the antioxidant and apoptosis related genes were mainly upregulated. Risk assessment indicated that the ecotoxicity of DEHP on the zebrafish showed an "enhancement-reduction" trend as the exposure time was prolonged. Overall, these results provided new insights and useful information to ecological risk assessment and environmental management of DEHP pollution.

Environmental efficacy of polyethylene microplastics: Enhancing the solidification of CuO nanoparticles and reducing the physiological toxicity to peanuts.

Microplastics and metal-based nanoparticles (NPs) are environmental pollutants that have attracted significant attention. However, there have been relatively few studies on the combined pollution of these substances in the soil-plant system. To investigate the environmental impact and interaction mechanisms of these two pollutants, a pot experiment was conducted to examine the effects of soil exposure on peanut growth. The experiment results revealed that polyethylene (PE) had a minimal effect on peanut growth, while CuO NPs significantly inhibited peanut growth. Peanut biomass decreased by over 50 % in all Cu treatments. The presence of PE significantly impacted the dissolution and absorption of CuO NPs. When 0.5 % PE was present, the dissolution and transformation of CuO NPs were limited, resulting in a total Cu concentration of 458 mg/kg. Conversely, when 5 % PE was present, the dissolution and transformation of CuO NPs were promoted, leading to a DTPA-Cu concentration of 141 mg/kg, the highest level observed. The distribution of trace elements in peanut stems also responded to the differences in Cu concentration. Both pollutants significantly disrupted soil bacteria, with CuO NPs having a more pronounced effect than PE. Throughout the entire growth cycle of peanuts, no chemical adsorption occurred between PE and CuO NPs, and CuO NPs had no significant impact on the aging rate of PE. In summary, this study provides insights into the environmental impact and transport mechanisms of composite pollution involving microplastics and metal-based nanoparticles in the soil-peanut system.

Mechanism of the adverse outcome of Chlorella vulgaris exposure to diethyl phthalate: Water environmental health reflected by primary producer toxicity.

As a ubiquitous contaminant in aquatic environments, diethyl phthalate (DEP) is a major threat to ecosystems because of its increasing utilization. However, the ecological responses to and toxicity mechanisms of DEP in aquatic organisms remain poorly understood. To address this environmental concern, we selected Chlorella vulgaris (C. vulgaris) as a model organism and investigated the toxicological effects of environmentally relevant DEP concentrations at the individual, physiological, biochemical, and molecular levels. Results showed that the incorporation of DEP significantly inhibited the growth of C. vulgaris, with inhibition rates ranging from 10.3 % to 83.47 %, and disrupted intracellular chloroplast structure at the individual level, while the decrease in photosynthetic pigments, with inhibition rates ranging from 8.95 % to 73.27 %, and the imbalance of redox homeostasis implied an adverse effect of DEP at the physio-biochemical level. Furthermore, DEP significantly reduced the metabolic activity of algal cells and negatively altered the cell membrane integrity and mitochondrial membrane potential. In addition, the apoptosis rate of algal cells presented a significant dose-effect relationship, which was mainly attributed to the fact that DEP pollutants regulated Ca2+ homeostasis and further increased the expression of Caspase-8, Caspase-9, and Caspase-3, which are associated with internal and external pathways. The gene transcriptional expression profile further revealed that DEP-mediated toxicity in C. vulgaris was mainly related to the destruction of the photosynthetic system, terpenoid backbone biosynthesis, and DNA replication. Overall, this study offers constructive understandings for a comprehensive assessment of the toxicity risks posed by DEP to C. vulgaris.

Soil health hazards of di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate: New perspectives on earthworms from different ecological niches DNA damage, gut microbial disruption and soil enzyme changes.

Di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) is perceived an emerging threat to terrestrial ecosystem, however, clear and accurate studies to fully understander ecotoxicity and underlying mechanisms of DEHP on the soil fauna remain poorly understood. Therefore, this study conducted a microcosm experiment of two earthworm ecotypes to investigate the ecological hazards of DHEP from multiple perspectives. The results showed that DEHP significantly increased the 8-hydroxy-deoxyguanosine (8-OHdG) content both in Eisenia foetida (13.76-133.0%) and Metaphire guillelmi (11.01-49.12%), leading to intracellular DNA damage. Meanwhile, DEHP negatively affected the expression of functional genes (ATP-6, NADH1, COX), which may be detrimental to mitochondrial respiration and oxidative stress at the gene level. The two earthworm guts shared analogous dominant bacteria however, the incorporation of DEHP drastically suppressed the homogeneity and diversity of the gut microbes, which further disrupted the homeostasis of the gut microbial ecological network. The keystone species in the gut of E. foetida decreased under DEHP stress but increased in the gut of M. guillelmi. Moreover, DEHP presented detrimental effects on soil enzyme activity, which is mainly associated with pollutant levels and earthworm activity. Collectively, the findings expand the understanding of soil ecological health and reveal the underlying mechanisms of the potential exposure risk to DEHP.

Novel Insights into Stereoselective Reproductive Toxicity Induced by Mefentrifluconazole in Earthworms (Eisenia fetida): First Report of Estrogenic Effects.

Widespread use of the new chiral triazole fungicide mefentrifluconazole (MFZ) poses a threat to soil organisms. Although triazole fungicides have been reported to induce reproductive disorders in vertebrates, significant research gaps remain regarding their impact on the reproductive health of soil invertebrates. Here, reproduction-related toxicity end points were explored in earthworms (Eisenia fetida) after exposure for 28 d to soil containing 4 mg/kg racemic MFZ, R-(-)-MFZ, and S-(+)-MFZ. The S-(+)-MFZ treatment resulted in a more pronounced reduction in the number of cocoons and juveniles compared to R-(-)-MFZ treatment, and the expression of annetocin gene was significantly downregulated following exposure to both enantiomers. This reproductive toxicity has been attributed to the disruption of ovarian steroidogenesis at the transcriptional level. Further studies revealed that MFZ enantiomers were able to activate the estrogen receptor (ER). Indirect evidence for this estrogenic effect is provided by the introduction of 17ß-estradiol, which also induces reproductive disorders through ER activation.

Photocatalytic degradation of butyl benzyl phthalate by S-scheme Bi/Bi2O2CO3/Bi2S3 under simulated sunlight irradiation.

As a kind of plasticizer, butyl benzyl phthalate (BBP) presents a serious hazard to the ecosystem. Therefore, there is a strong need for an effective technique to eliminate the risk of BBP. In this work, a new photocatalyst of Bi/Bi2O2CO3/Bi2S3 with an S-scheme heterojunction was synthesized using Bi(NO3)3 as the Bi source, Na2S as the S source, and DMF as the carbon source and reductant. Numerous techniques have been used to characterize Bi/Bi2O2CO3/Bi2S3, such as scanning electron microscopy, high-resolution transmission electron microscopy, X-ray diffraction, and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy. The improved photoactivity of Bi/Bi2O2CO3/Bi2S3 was evaluated by photoelectrochemical response, electrochemical impedance spectroscopy, photoluminescence, UV-Vis diffuse reflectance spectroscopy, and electrochemical Mott Schottky spectroscopy. The enhanced photocatalytic activity of this composite for BBP degradation under simulated sunlight irradiation could be attributed to the surface plasmon resonance effect of Bi metal and the heterojunction structure of Bi2O2CO3 and Bi2S3. The degradation rate of Bi/Bi2O2CO3/Bi2S3 was 85%, which was 4.52 and 1.52 times that of Bi2O2CO3 and Bi2S3, respectively. The prepared photocatalyst possessed good stability and reproducibility in eliminating BBP. The improved photocatalytic activity of Bi/Bi2O2CO3/Bi2S3 was demonstrated with the formation of an S-scheme heterojunction, and the degradation mechanism was discussed with a liquid chromatograph mass spectrometer.

Ecotoxicological and biochemical effects of di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate on wheat (Jimai 22, Triticum aestivum L.).

Di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate esters (DEHP) has attracted widespread attention due to its ecotoxicological effects on organisms. In this study, wheat seedlings were exposed to DEHP- contaminated soil with 4 concentration gradients (0, 1, 10, and 100 mg kg-1, respectively) for 30 days. The growth index, physiological index, oxidative damage system, and gene expression of wheat seedlings were comprehensively measured and analyzed. The results revealed that DEHP could reduce the germination rate of wheat. Only the 100 mg kg-1 treatment group significantly inhibited root length, but no effect on plant height. At the biochemical level, photosynthetic pigments of wheat seedlings were promoted first and then inhibited, while the soluble sugar content presented a trend of "inhibition - activation - inhibition". The antioxidant enzymes (SOD and POD) presented an approximate parabolic trend, while it was opposite for CAT. Whereas the corresponding antioxidant enzyme genes were up-regulated, and the Hsp70 heat-shock protein gene was down-regulated. Finally, integrated biological response index (IBR) analysis showed that the DEHP toxicity to wheat seedlings was dose dependent. Molecular docking indicated that DEHP could stably bind to GBSS and GST by intermolecular force. Overall, this study provided constructive insights for a comprehensive assessment of the toxicity risk of DEHP to wheat.

Oxidative stress and gene expression induced by biodegradable microplastics and imidacloprid in earthworms (Eisenia fetida) at environmentally relevant concentrations.

The environmental issues caused by biodegradable microplastics (BMPs) from polylactic acid (PLA) as well as pesticides are of increasing concern nowadays. In this study, the toxicological effects of the single and combined exposure of PLA BMPs and imidacloprid (IMI), a neonicotinoid insecticide, on earthworms (Eisenia fetida) were investigated in terms of oxidative stress, DNA damage, and gene expression, respectively. The results showed that compared with the control, SOD, CAT and AChE activities in the single and combined treatments decreased significantly, and POD activity showed an "inhibition-activation" trend. SOD and CAT activities of combined treatments on day 28 and AChE activity of combined treatment on day 21 were significantly higher than those of the single treatments. For the rest of the exposure period, SOD, CAT and AChE activities in the combined treatments were lower than those in the single treatments. POD activity in the combined treatment was significantly lower than those of single treatments at day 7 and higher than that of single treatments at day 28. MDA content showed an "inhibition-activation-inhibition" trend, and the ROS level and 8-OHdG content increased significantly in both the single and combined treatments. This shows that both single and combined treatments led to oxidative stress and DNA damage. ANN and HSP70 were expressed abnormally, while the SOD and CAT mRNA expression changes were generally consistent with the corresponding enzyme activities. The integrated biomarker response (IBR) values were higher under combined exposures than single exposures at both biochemical and molecular levels, indicating that combined treatment exacerbated the toxicity. However, the IBR value of the combined treatment decreased consistently at the time axis. Overall, our results suggest that PLA BMPs and IMI induce oxidative stress and gene expression in earthworms at environmentally relevant concentrations, thereby increasing the risk of earthworms.

Exploring the toxicity of biodegradable microplastics and imidacloprid to earthworms (Eisenia fetida) from morphological and gut microbial perspectives.

Biodegradable microplastics (BMPs) pose serious environmental problems to soil organisms, and their adsorption capacity might make pesticides more dangerous for soil organisms. Therefore, in this study, polylactic acid (PLA) BMPs and imidacloprid (IMI) were used as a representative of BMPs and pesticides, respectively. Eisenia fetida was used as a test animal to investigate the effects of environmentally relevant concentrations of single and compound contaminated PLA BMPs and IMI on mortality, growth, number of offspring, tissue damage, and gut microorganisms of E.fetida. Exposure to PLA BMPs treatment and PLA BMPs + IMI treatment resulted in a sustained increase in E.fetida mortality, reaching 16.7% and 26.7%, respectively. The growth inhibition rate of single treatments was significantly increased. The compound contamination had the greatest effect on E.fetida offspring compared to the control. PLA BMPs and IMI cause histological damage to E.fetida, with the compound treatment causing the most severe damage. Based on the results of 16S sequencing, the bacterial communities in E.fetida gut and soil treated to PLA BMPs and IMI were significantly different. PLA BMPs + IMI treatment suppresses the abundance and diversity of E.fetida gut microorganisms, disrupting the homeostasis of bacterial communities and causing immune and metabolic dysfunction. These findings highlight the more severe damage of combined PLA BMPs and IMI pollution to E.fetida, and help to assess the risk of earthworm exposure to environmentally relevant concentrations of PLA BMPs and IMI.