Immunomodulatory nanoparticles activate cytotoxic T cells for enhancement of the effect of cancer immunotherapy.

Cancer immunotherapy represents a promising targeted treatment by leveraging the patient's immune system or adoptive transfer of active immune cells to selectively eliminate cancer cells. Despite notable clinical successes, conventional immunotherapies face significant challenges stemming from the poor infiltration of endogenous or adoptively transferred cytotoxic T cells in tumors, immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment and the immune evasion capability of cancer cells, leading to limited efficacy in many types of solid tumors. Overcoming these hurdles is essential to broaden the applicability of immunotherapies. Recent advances in nanotherapeutics have emerged as an innovative tool to overcome these challenges and enhance the therapeutic potential of tumor immunotherapy. The unique biochemical and biophysical properties of nanomaterials offer advantages in activation of immune cells in vitro for cell therapy, targeted delivery, and controlled release of immunomodulatory agents in vivo. Nanoparticles are excellent carriers for tumor associated antigens or neoantigen peptides for tumor vaccine, empowering activation of tumor specific T cell responses. By precisely delivering immunomodulatory agents to the tumor site, immunoactivating nanoparticles can promote tumor infiltration of endogenous T cells or adoptively transferred T cells into tumors, to overcoming delivery and biological barriers in the tumor microenvironment, augmenting the immune system's ability to recognize and eliminate cancer cells. This review provides an overview of the current advances in immunotherapeutic approaches utilizing nanotechnology. With a focus on discussions concerning strategies to enhance activity and efficacy of cytotoxic T cells and explore the intersection of engineering nanoparticles and immunomodulation aimed at bolstering T cell-mediated immune responses, we introduce various nanoparticle formulations designed to deliver therapeutic payloads, tumor antigens and immunomodulatory agents for T cell activation. Diverse mechanisms through which nanoparticle-based approaches influence T cell responses by improving antigen presentation, promoting immune cell trafficking, and reprogramming immunosuppressive tumor microenvironments to potentiate anti-tumor immunity are examined. Additionally, the synergistic potential of combining nanotherapeutics with existing immunotherapies, such as immune checkpoint inhibitors and adoptive T cell therapies is explored. In conclusion, this review highlights emerging research advances on activation of cytotoxic T cells using nanoparticle agents to support the promises and potential applications of nanoparticle-based immunomodulatory agents for cancer immunotherapy.

Muc16CD is a novel CAR T cell target antigen for the treatment of pancreatic cancer.

Pancreatic cancer is an aggressive malignancy with a 5-year survival rate of 13% that remains refractory to current immunotherapies, such as chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T cells. These engineered cells can produce robust anti-tumor responses but require a reliable tumor-associated antigen (TAA) target. Here, we describe the retained ectodomain of Muc16, Muc16CD, as a novel TAA for targeting by CAR T cell therapy in pancreatic cancer. We establish clinically relevant, endogenous Muc16 and Muc16CD expression in pancreatic tumor tissues for CAR T cell targeting. Muc16CD-directed CAR T cells can both recognize and activate in a polyfunctional manner in response to patient-derived pancreatic tumor cells. Last, we demonstrate that Muc16CD-directed CAR T cells can elicit an anti-tumor response in vivo with significantly enhanced tumor control and survival benefits in a pancreatic tumor model. Overall, these findings demonstrate the utility of Muc16CD-targeted CAR T cell therapy in the novel setting of pancreatic cancer.

Inhibition of NADPH Oxidase-ROS Signal using Hyaluronic Acid Nanoparticles for Overcoming Radioresistance in Cancer Therapy.

Upregulation of NADPH oxidases (NOXs) in cancer cells leads to chronic increase in intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) and adaptation to a high ROS level for cell survival and, thereby, low sensitivity to radiotherapy. To overcome resistance to radiotherapy, we have developed a bioactive and CD44 targeted hyaluronic acid nanoparticle encapsulated with an NOX inhibitor, GKT831 (HANP/GKT831). We found that HANP/GKT831 had stronger inhibitory effects on ROS generation and cell proliferation than that of GKT831 alone in cancer cells. Systemic delivery of HANP/GKT831 led to the targeted accumulation in breast cancer patient derived xenograft (PDX) tumors in nude mice. Importantly, the combination of systemic delivery of HANP/GKT831 with a low dose of local radiotherapy significantly enhanced tumor growth inhibition in breast cancer PDX models. Our results showed that HANP/GKT831 primed tumor cells to radiation-induced DNA damage and cell death by downregulation of DNA repair function and oncogenic signal pathways.

Reciprocal regulation of ZEB1 and AR in triple negative breast cancer cells.

Zinc-finger enhancer binding protein (ZEB1) is a transcription factor involved in the progression of cancer primarily through promoting epithelial to mesenchymal transition (EMT). ZEB1 represses the expression of E-cadherin by binding to E-box sequences in the promoter, thus decreasing epithelial differentiation. We show that ZEB1 and androgen receptor (AR) cross-talk in triple negative breast cancer cell lines. Chromatin immunoprecipitation analysis demonstrates that ZEB1 binds directly to the E-box located in the AR promoter. ZEB1 suppression by stably transfecting shRNA in a triple negative breast cancer cell line resulted in a decrease of AR mRNA, protein, and AR downstream targets. ZEB1 knockdown in triple negative breast cancer cells sensitized the cells to bicalutamide by reducing migration compared to the control cells. Conversely, blockade of AR signaling with bicalutamide resulted in a suppression of ZEB1 protein expression in two triple negative breast cancer cell lines. Furthermore, using a breast cancer tissue microarray, a majority of triple negative breast cancers exhibit positive staining for both ZEB1 and AR. Taken together, these results indicate that ZEB1 and AR regulate each other to promote cell migration in triple negative breast cancer cells.

A rapid screen of broth enrichments for Salmonella enterica serovars enteritidis, Hadar, Heidelberg, and Typhimurium by Using an allelotyping multiplex PCR that targets O- and H-antigen alleles.

Salmonella continues to cause significant foodborne outbreaks, best illustrated with recent outbreaks associated with peanut butter, raw tomatoes, and serrano peppers. To ascertain the likely source of the outbreak, bacterial typing is essential to this process. While PCR has become an important detection tool for pathogens in foods, PCR can also identify strain differences by targeting gene(s) or sequences exhibiting polymorphisms or variability in its distribution within the bacterial population. Over 2,500 Salmonella enterica serovars identified based on antigenic differences in lipopolysaccharide and flagellin have been identified to date. We developed an allelotyping PCR scheme that identifies the O and H alleles associated with S. enterica serovars Enteritidis, Hadar, Heidelberg, Typhimurium, and others, with the same antigen alleles but in different O- and H-allele combinations (e.g., S. enterica Kentucky), and validated it as a screen to identify samples contaminated with these Salmonella serovars. We correctly identified poultry samples containing S. enterica serovars Enteritidis, Kentucky, and Typhimurium from our multiplex screen of primary enrichments of environmental drag swabs. PCR agreed well (kappa values = 0.81 to 1.0) with conventional serotyping methods used to type salmonellae isolated from primary enrichment. Coupled with Salmonella-specific PCR, such as invA, this allelotyping PCR could prove useful in the identification of Salmonella and specific S. enterica serovars present in foods or the environment and could decrease the time and cost associated with conventional serotyping methods.

Rapid screening of Salmonella enterica serovars Enteritidis, Hadar, Heidelberg and Typhimurium using a serologically-correlative allelotyping PCR targeting the O and H antigen alleles.

BACKGROUND: Classical Salmonella serotyping is an expensive and time consuming process that requires implementing a battery of O and H antisera to detect 2,541 different Salmonella enterica serovars. For these reasons, we developed a rapid multiplex polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-based typing scheme to screen for the prevalent S. enterica serovars Enteritidis, Hadar, Heidelberg, and Typhimurium. RESULTS: By analyzing the nucleotide sequences of the genes for O-antigen biosynthesis including wba operon and the central variable regions of the H1 and H2 flagellin genes in Salmonella, designated PCR primers for four multiplex PCR reactions were used to detect and differentiate Salmonella serogroups A/D1, B, C1, C2, or E1; H1 antigen types i, g, m, r or z10; and H2 antigen complexes, I: 1,2; 1,5; 1,6; 1,7 or II: e,n,x; e,n,z15. Through the detection of these antigen gene allele combinations, we were able to distinguish among S. enterica serovars Enteritidis, Hadar, Heidelberg, and Typhimurium. The assays were useful in identifying Salmonella with O and H antigen gene alleles representing 43 distinct serovars. While the H2 multiplex could discriminate between unrelated H2 antigens, the PCR could not discern differences within the antigen complexes, 1,2; 1,5; 1,6; 1,7 or e,n,x; e,n,z15, requiring a final confirmatory PCR test in the final serovar reporting of S. enterica. CONCLUSION: Multiplex PCR assays for detecting specific O and H antigen gene alleles can be a rapid and cost-effective alternative approach to classical serotyping for presumptive identification of S. enterica serovars Enteritidis, Hadar, Heidelberg, and Typhimurium.

Antimicrobial susceptibility and distribution of antimicrobial-resistance genes among Enterococcus and coagulase-negative Staphylococcus isolates recovered from poultry litter.

Data on the prevalence of antimicrobial resistant enterococci and staphylococci from the poultry production environment are sparse in the United States. This information is needed for science-based risk assessments of antimicrobial use in animal husbandry and potential public-health consequences. In this study, we assessed the susceptibility of staphylococci and enterococci isolated from poultry litter, recovered from 24 farms across Georgia, to several antimicrobials of veterinary and human health importance. Among the 90 Enterococcus isolates recovered, E. hirae (46%) was the most frequently encountered species, followed by E. faecium (27%), E. gallinarum (12%), and E. faecalis (10%). Antimicrobial resistance was most often observed to tetracycline (96%), followed by clindamycin (90%), quinupristin-dalfopristin (62%), penicillin (53%), erythromycin (50%), nitrofurantoin (49%), and clarithromycin (48%). Among the 110 staphylococci isolates recovered, only coagulase-negative staphylococci (CNS) were identified with the predominant Staphylococcus species being S. sciuri (38%), S. lentus (21%), S. xylosus (14%) and S. simulans (12%). Resistance was less-frequently observed among the Staphylococcus isolates for the majority of antimicrobials tested, as compared with Enterococcus isolates, and was primarily limited to clarithromycin (71%), erythromycin (71%), clindamycin (48%), and tetracycline (38%). Multidrug resistance (MDR) phenotypes were prevalent in both Enterococcus and Staphylococcus; however, Enterococcus exhibited a statistically significant difference in the median number of antimicrobials to which resistance was observed (median = 5.0) compared with Staphylococcus species (median = 3.0). Because resistance to several of these antimicrobials in gram-positive bacteria may be attributed to the shuttling of common drug-resistance genes, we also determined which common antimicrobial-resistance genes were present in both enterococci and staphylococci. The antimicrobial resistance genes vat(D) and erm(B) were present in enterococci, vgaB in staphylococci, and mobile genetic elements Tn916 and pheromone-inducible plasmids were only identified in enterococci. These data suggest that the disparity in antimicrobial-resistance phenotypes and genotypes between enterococci and staphylococci isolated from the same environment is, in part, because of barriers preventing exchange of mobile DNA elements.

FAK activation is required for IGF1R-mediated regulation of EMT, migration, and invasion in mesenchymal triple negative breast cancer cells.

Triple negative breast cancer (TNBC) is a highly metastatic disease that currently lacks effective prevention and treatment strategies. The insulin-like growth factor 1 receptor (IGF1R) and focal adhesion kinase (FAK) signaling pathways function in numerous developmental processes, and alterations in both are linked with a number of common pathological diseases. Overexpression of IGF1R and FAK are closely associated with metastatic breast tumors. The present study investigated the interrelationship between IGF1R and FAK signaling in regulating the malignant properties of TNBC cells. Using small hairpin RNA (shRNA)-mediated IGF1R silencing methods, we showed that IGF1R is essential for sustaining mesenchymal morphologies of TNBC cells and modulates the expression of EMT-related markers. We further showed that IGF1R overexpression promotes migratory and invasive behaviors of TNBC cell lines. Most importantly, IGF1R-driven migration and invasion is predominantly mediated by FAK activation and can be suppressed using pharmacological inhibitors of FAK. Our findings in TNBC cells demonstrate a novel role of the IGF1R/FAK signaling pathway in regulating critical processes involved in the metastatic cascade. These results may improve the current understanding of the basic molecular mechanisms of TNBC metastasis and provide a strong rationale for co-targeting of IGF1R and FAK as therapy for mesenchymal TNBCs.

Application of nested polymerase chain reaction to detection of Salmonella in poultry environment.

Isolation of Salmonella from environmental and processing-plant poultry samples requires the sampling of large numbers of areas within the poultry house or plant. Subsequently, the required number of samples necessitates a large volume of work for a microbiology laboratory, especially when the protocol requires the inclusion of a delayed secondary enrichment for the isolation of Salmonella. This study examined the use of the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) to identify those secondary enrichments containing Salmonella. The unique Salmonella virulence gene invA was chosen as the target for the development of a nested PCR because of its uniform distribution among Salmonella serotypes. The use of nested PCR primers increased the sensitivity of detection 100-fold, resulting in the detection of as few as four cells. There was a strong, statistically significant positive correlation between PCR and culture results as determined by chi-square (P < 0.001) and kappa (kappa = 0.915; excellent agreement) tests. Using PCR to screen primary enrichments for presumptive Salmonella contamination, we improved our efficiency at isolating Salmonella upon secondary enrichment by 20%, and no false negatives were observed. This method will not only validate the use of secondary enrichment procedures but also reduce costs and manpower required for the surveillance of Salmonella.

A restriction fragment length polymorphism-based polymerase chain reaction as an alternative to serotyping for identifying Salmonella serotypes.

The phase 1 (fliC) and phase 2 (fljB) Salmonella flagella genes were analyzed by restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP)-polymerase chain reaction (PCR) to aid in the identification of different Salmonella serotypes. Twenty-four phase 1 flagellin and eight phase 2 flagellin genes could be differentiated among each other with restriction endonucleases Sau3A and HhaI in RFLP-PCR analysis. These flagellin genes comprise the major antigenic formulas for 52 serotypes of Salmonella sp., which include the common serotypes found in poultry and other important food animal species. With the knowledge of the O antigen composition determined from conventional O serotyping, 90% of the Salmonella serotypes could be identified by this double restriction enzyme RFLP analysis of fliC and fljB genes. This RFLP-PCR flagellar typing scheme was successfully applied to the identification of serotype for 112 Salmonella isolates obtained from poultry environment. There was a significant correlation between RFLP-PCR and conventional serotyping (chi-square, P < 0.001). Overall, PCR-RFLP proved to be a fast, accurate, and economical alternative approach to serotyping Salmonella sp.

Combinatorial effects of lapatinib and rapamycin in triple-negative breast cancer cells.

Triple-negative breast cancers, which lack estrogen receptor, progesterone receptor, and HER2/neu overexpression, account for approximately 15% of breast cancers, but occur more commonly in African Americans. The poor survival outcomes seen with triple-negative breast cancers patients are, in part, due to a lack of therapeutic targets. Epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) is overexpressed in 50% of triple-negative breast cancers, but EGFR inhibitors have not been effective in patients with metastatic breast cancers. However, mTOR inhibition has been shown to reverse resistance to EGFR inhibitors. We examined the combination effects of mTOR inhibition with EGFR inhibition in triple-negative breast cancer in vitro and in vivo. The combination of EGFR inhibition by using lapatinib and mTOR inhibition with rapamycin resulted in significantly greater cytotoxicity than the single agents alone and these effects were synergistic in vitro. The combination of rapamycin and lapatinib significantly decreased growth of triple-negative breast cancers in vivo compared with either agent alone. EGFR inhibition abrogated the expression of rapamycin-induced activated Akt in triple-negative breast cancer cells in vitro. The combination of EGFR and mTOR inhibition resulted in increased apoptosis in some, but not all, triple-negative cell lines, and these apoptotic effects correlated with a decrease in activated eukaryotic translation initiation factor (eIF4E). These results suggest that mTOR inhibitors could sensitize a subset of triple-negative breast cancers to EGFR inhibitors. Given the paucity of effective targeted agents in triple-negative breast cancers, these results warrant further evaluation.

In vitro evaluation of pan-PI3-kinase inhibitor SF1126 in trastuzumab-sensitive and trastuzumab-resistant HER2-over-expressing breast cancer cells.

PURPOSE: The purpose of the current study is to determine the in vitro cytotoxic effects of the novel pan-PI3-kinase inhibitor SF1126 in HER2-over-expressing breast cancer cells. METHODS: Cell proliferation and cytotoxicity were examined by MTS colorimetric assay, FACS analysis, colony formation assay, and immunoblotting. Phosphoinositol-3-kinase signaling was assessed by immunoblotting for phosphorylated Akt. Combination effects of trastuzumab and SF1126 were examined in resistant cells by MTS and soft agar assay. RESULTS: SF1126 inhibited proliferation, and induced G1 arrest and apoptosis of SKBR3 and BT474 parental and trastuzumab-resistant HER2-over-expressing cells. Colony formation was inhibited by SF1126, caspase 3 and PARP proteins were cleaved, and survivin was down-regulated. Inhibition of PI3-kinase was confirmed by reduced phosphorylation of Akt. Finally, the combination of SF1126 and trastuzumab synergistically inhibited proliferation of resistant cells, with SF1126-treated cells showing reduced anchorage-independent growth. CONCLUSIONS: These results provide evidence that a clinically relevant pan-PI-3 kinase inhibitor can reverse trastuzumab resistance in breast cancer cells, and support further study of PI3-kinase inhibitor SF1126 in HER2-over-expressing breast cancer cells, including those that have progressed on trastuzumab.

The glycolytic inhibitor 2-deoxyglucose activates multiple prosurvival pathways through IGF1R.

Recent molecular studies indicate that aerobic glycolysis plays an important role in tumorigenesis and is a valid target for cancer therapy. Although 2-deoxyglucose (2-DG) is well characterized as a glycolytic inhibitor, we recently discovered that it activates a prosurvival oncoprotein, AKT, through PI3K. In this study, we discovered that 2-DG treatments disrupted the binding between insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1) and IGF-binding protein 3 (IGFBP3) so that the free form of IGF-1 could be released from the IGF-1.IGFBP3 complex to activate IGF-1 receptor (IGF1R) signaling. Because IGF1R signaling is involved, PI3K/AKT constitutes only one of the prosurvival pathways that are activated by 2-DG treatment; we validated that MEK-ERK signaling was also induced in an IGF1R-dependent manner in some cancer cell lines. Furthermore, our phospho-specific antibody microarray analysis indicated that 2-DG up-regulated the phosphorylation of 64 sites within various signaling pathways in H460 cells. Chemical inhibition of IGF1R reduced 57 of these up-regulations. These data suggest that 2-DG-induced activation of many survival pathways can be jointly attenuated through IGF1R inhibition. Our in vitro analysis demonstrated that treatment with a combination of subtoxic doses of 2-DG and the IGF1R inhibitor II reduced cancer cell proliferation 90% and promoted significant apoptosis.

Insulin-like growth factor-I-dependent up-regulation of ZEB1 drives epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition in human prostate cancer cells.

The epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) is crucial for the migration and invasion of many epithelial tumors, including prostate cancer. Although it is known that ZEB1 overexpression promotes EMT primarily through down-regulation of E-cadherin in a variety of cancers, the soluble ligands responsible for the activation of ZEB1 have yet to be identified. In the present study, we investigated the role of insulin-like growth factor-I (IGF-I) in the regulation of ZEB1 during EMT associated with prostate tumor cell migration. We found that ZEB1 is expressed in highly aggressive prostate cancer cells and that its expression correlates directly with Gleason grade in human prostate tumors (P < 0.001). IGF-I up-regulates ZEB1 expression in prostate cancer cells exhibiting an epithelial phenotype. In prostate cancer cells displaying a mesenchymal phenotype, ZEB1 inhibition reverses the suppression of E-cadherin protein and down-regulates the expression of the mesenchymal markers N-cadherin and fibronectin. Furthermore, ZEB1 blockade decreases migratory and invasive potential in ARCaP(M) compared with the control. These results identify ZEB1 as a key transcriptional regulator of EMT in prostate cancer and suggest that the aberrant expression of ZEB1 in prostate cancer cells occurs in part in response to IGF-I stimulation.

Vertical and horizontal transmission of salmonella within integrated broiler production system.

Salmonella remains one of the leading causes of food-borne illness in the United States, and many key questions regarding the introduction and persistence in animal production systems still remain. In order to understand the ecology of Salmonella within an integrated commercial broiler production system, 289 Salmonella enterica were recovered from two integrated poultry farms during the production and processing of seven consecutive flocks. The variety and prevalence of Salmonella serotypes differed between farms. Overall, 15 serotypes were identified, with the most common being Typhimurium (55%), Montevideo (7.9%), Kentucky (9%), and Enteritidis (9.7%). Salmonella Typhimurium and Enteritidis isolates recovered from processed carcasses from Farm One were further characterized using pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE), and were shown to be indistinguishable from isolates recovered from the poultry house environment and mice trapped on this farm. Additionally, the same broiler S. Typhimurium and S. Enteritidis strains, identified by PFGE, were also isolated from samples taken at a company breeder farm, suggesting vertical transmission of these Salmonella serotypes in this poultry production system. Results indicate that management practices at the breeder level may have a profound effect on the transmission and persistence of salmonellae within an integrated production system, as well as on the potential contamination of poultry-derived products.

Rapid detection of Campylobacter coli, C. jejuni, and Salmonella enterica on poultry carcasses by using PCR-enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay.

Contamination of retail poultry by Campylobacter spp. and Salmonella enterica is a significant source of human diarrheal disease. Isolation and identification of these microorganisms require a series of biochemical and serological tests. In this study, Campylobacter ceuE and Salmonella invA genes were used to design probes in PCR-enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), as an alternative to conventional bacteriological methodology, for the rapid detection of Campylobacter jejuni, Campylobacter coli, and S. enterica from poultry samples. With PCR-ELISA (40 cycles), the detection limits for Salmonella and Campylobacter were 2 x 10(2) and 4 x 10(1) CFU/ml, respectively. ELISA increased the sensitivity of the conventional PCR method by 100- to 1,000-fold. DNA was extracted from carcass rinses and tetrathionate enrichments and used in PCR-ELISA for the detection of Campylobacter and S. enterica, respectively. With PCR-ELISA, Salmonella was detected in 20 of 120 (17%) chicken carcass rinses examined, without the inclusion of an enrichment step. Significant correlation was observed between PCR-ELISA and cultural methods (kappa = 0.83; chi-square test, P < 0.001) with only one false negative (1.67%) and four false positives (6.67%) when PCR-ELISA was used to screen 60 tetrathionate enrichment cultures for Salmonella. With PCR-ELISA, we observed a positive correlation between the ELISA absorbance (optical density at 405 nm) and the campylobacter cell number in carcass rinse, as determined by standard culture methods. Overall, PCR-ELISA is a rapid and cost-effective approach for the detection and enumeration of Salmonella and Campylobacter bacteria on poultry.