Ventromedial Prefrontal Cortex Tracks Multiple Environmental Variables during Search.

To make efficient foraging decisions, we must combine information about the values of available options with nonvalue information. Some accounts of ventromedial PFC (vmPFC) suggest that it has a narrow role limited to evaluating immediately available options. We examined responses of neurons in area 14 (a putative macaque homolog of human vmPFC) as 2 male macaques performed a novel foraging search task. Although many neurons encoded the values of immediately available offers, they also independently encoded several other variables that influence choice, but that are conceptually distinct from offer value. These variables include average reward rate, number of offers viewed per trial, previous offer values, previous outcome sizes, and the locations of the currently attended offer. We conclude that, rather than serving as specialized economic value center, vmPFC plays a broad role in integrating relevant environmental information to drive foraging decisions.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Decision makers must often choose whether to take an immediately available option or continue to search for a better one. We hypothesized that this process, which is integral to foraging theory, leaves neural signatures in the brain region ventromedial PFC. Subjects performed a novel foraging task in which they searched through differently valued options and attempted to balance their reward threshold with various time costs. We found that neurons not only encode the values of immediately available offers, but multiplexed these with environmental variables, including reward rate, number of offers viewed, previous offer values, and spatial information. We conclude that vmPFC plays a rich role in encoding and integrating multiple foraging-related variables during economic decisions.

Neuronal responses support a role for orbitofrontal cortex in cognitive set reconfiguration.

We are often faced with the need to abandon no-longer beneficial rules and adopt new ones. This process, known as cognitive set reconfiguration, is a hallmark of executive control. Although cognitive functions like reconfiguration are most often associated with dorsal prefrontal structures, recent evidence suggests that the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) may play an important role as well. We recorded the activity of OFC neurons while rhesus macaques performed an analogue of the Wisconsin Card Sorting Task that involved a trial and error stage. The OFC neurons demonstrated two types of switch-related activity, an early (switch-away) signal and a late (switch-to) signal, when the new task set was established. We also found a pattern of match modulation: a significant change in activity for the stimulus that matched the current perceptual rule (and would therefore be selected). These results extend our understanding of the executive functions of the OFC. They also allow us to directly compare the OFC with the complementary datasets we previously collected in the ventral (VS) and dorsal (DS) striatum. Although both effects are observed in all three areas, the timing of responses aligns the OFC more closely with DS than with VS.