Development and assessment of an integrated ecological modelling framework to assess the effect of investments in wastewater treatment on water quality.

Worldwide, large investments in wastewater treatment are made to improve water quality. However, the impacts of these investments on river water quality are often not quantified. To assess water quality, the European Water Framework Directive (WFD) requires an integrated approach. The aim of this study was to develop an integrated ecological modelling framework for the River Drava (Croatia) that includes physical-chemical and hydromorphological characteristics as well as the ecological river water quality status. The developed submodels and the integrated model showed accurate predictions when comparing the modelled results to the observations. Dissolved oxygen and nitrogen concentrations (ammonium and organic nitrogen) were the most important variables in determining the ecological water quality (EWQ). The result of three potential investment scenarios of the wastewater treatment infrastructure in the city of Varazdin on the EWQ of the River Drava was assessed. From this scenario-based analysis, it was concluded that upgrading the existing wastewater treatment plant with nitrogen and phosphorus removal will be insufficient to reach a good EWQ. Therefore, other point and diffuse pollution sources in the area should also be monitored and remediated to meet the European WFD standards.

Introduction of Native Submerged Macrophytes to Restore Biodiversity in Streams.

Streams are biodiversity hotspots that provide numerous ecosystem services. Safeguarding this biodiversity is crucial to uphold sustainable ecosystem functioning and to ensure the continuation of these ecosystem services in the future. However, in recent decades, streams have witnessed a disproportionate decline in biodiversity compared to other ecosystems, and are currently considered among the most threatened ecosystems worldwide. This is the result of the combined effect of a multitude of stressors. For freshwater systems in general, these have been classified into five main pressures: water pollution, overexploitation, habitat degradation and destruction, alien invasive species, and hydromorphological pressures. On top of these direct stressors, the effects of global processes like environmental and climate change must be considered. The intricate and interconnected nature of various stressors affecting streams has made it challenging to formulate effective policies and management strategies. As a result, restoration efforts have not always been successful in creating a large-scale shift towards a better ecological status. In order to achieve an improved status in these systems, situation-specific management strategies tailored to specific stressor combinations may be needed. In this paper, we examine the potential of introducing native submerged macrophyte species to advance the restoration of stream ecosystems. Through successful introductions, we anticipate positive ecological outcomes, including enhanced water quality and increased biodiversity. This research is significant, as the potential success in restoring stream biodiversity not only represents progress in ecological understanding but also offers valuable insights for future restoration and management strategies for these vital ecosystems.

Integrating data-driven ecological models in an expert-based decision support system for water management in the Du river basin (Vietnam).

In this study, classification trees were combined with the Water Framework Directive (WFD)-Explorer, a modular toolbox that supports integrated water management in a river basin to evaluate the impact of different restoration measures on river ecology. First, the WFD-Explorer toolbox analysed the effect of different restoration options on the abiotic river characteristics based on the water and substance balance embedded in the simulation environment. Based on these abiotic characteristics, the biological index Biological Monitoring Working Party for Vietnam was then predicted by classification trees that were trained on biological and abiotic data collected in the Du river basin in northern Vietnam. The ecological status of streams in the basin ranged from nearly pristine headwaters to severely impacted river stretches. Elimination of point sources from ore extraction and decentralised domestic wastewater treatment proved to be the most effective measures to improve the ecological condition of the Du river basin. The combination of the WFD-Explorer results with data-driven models enabled model application in a situation where expert knowledge was lacking. Consequently, this approach appeared promising for decision support in the context of river restoration and conservation management.

Determining Tipping Points and Responses of Macroinvertebrate Traits to Abiotic Factors in Support of River Management.

Although the trait concept is increasingly used in research, quantitative relations that can support in determining ecological tipping points and serve as a basis for environmental standards are lacking. This study determines changes in trait abundance along a gradient of flow velocity, turbidity and elevation, and develops trait-response curves, which facilitate the identification of ecological tipping points. Aquatic macroinvertebrates and abiotic conditions were determined at 88 different locations in the streams of the Guayas basin. After trait information collection, a set of trait diversity metrics were calculated. Negative binomial regression and linear regression were applied to relate the abundance of each trait and trait diversity metrics, respectively, to flow velocity, turbidity and elevation. Tipping points for each environmental variable in relation to traits were identified using the segmented regression method. The abundance of most traits increased with increasing velocity, while they decreased with increasing turbidity. The negative binomial regression models revealed that from a flow velocity higher than 0.5 m/s, a substantial increase in abundance occurs for several traits, and this is even more substantially noticed at values higher than 1 m/s. Furthermore, significant tipping points were also identified for elevation, wherein an abrupt decline in trait richness was observed below 22 m a.s.l., implying the need to focus water management in these altitudinal regions. Turbidity is potentially caused by erosion; thus, measures that can reduce or limit erosion within the basin should be implemented. Our findings suggest that measures mitigating the issues related to turbidity and flow velocity may lead to better aquatic ecosystem functioning. This quantitative information related to flow velocity might serve as a good basis to determine ecological flow requirements and illustrates the major impacts that hydropower dams can have in fast-running river systems. These quantitative relations between invertebrate traits and environmental conditions, as well as related tipping points, provide a basis to determine critical targets for aquatic ecosystem management, achieve improved ecosystem functioning and warrant trait diversity.

Taxonomic and Feeding Trait-Based Analysis of Macroinvertebrates in the Antisana River Basin (Ecuadorian Andean Region).

High-elevation tropical streams are under increasing threat from human activities and climate change. Specifically, Ecuadorian Andean streams require priority actions such as bioassessment (e.g., biodiversity and functional ecology of macroinvertebrates) in order to generate adequate environmental management policies. Therefore, we investigated the distribution and composition of the macroinvertebrate taxa and their functional feeding groups in relation to the environmental variables in the Antisana river basin (Andean-Ecuadorian Region). We sampled macroinvertebrates from 15 locations to assess ecological conditions (ECs), expressed as the Biological Monitoring Working Party Colombia (BMWP-Col) classes, the Andean Biotic Index (ABI) and the Andean-Amazon Biotic Index (AAMBI). Results indicate that dissolved oxygen saturation, elevation, nutrient concentration and conductivity contributed significantly to the composition of the taxa and functional feeding groups (FFGs). Taxa diversity and FFGs were more abundant in the best EC sites. Shredders (SH) were, overall, dominant and abundant at sites with medium-high ECs. Scrapers constituted the second most prevalent assemblage, exerting dominance at moderate ecological conditions (high altitude and high oxygen saturation). Collector-gathers (CGs) are less sensitive to contamination than the previous two groups but were equally abundant at medium-high EC sites. Collector-filterers (CFs) and parasites (PAs) were less abundant, although the presence of the former was slightly related to better environmental conditions. Predators (PRs) were almost absent throughout the study, but they were collected from poor EC sites. CGs, PAs and PRs showed more tolerance to the presence of human disturbances (e.g., hydraulic constructions or slope erosion). The BMWP-Col index seems to be the best fit for this ecosystem, showing a significant difference in FFG between the index classes, compared to the other indices evaluated. The results of this investigation may be regarded as a fundamental starting point and used in future bioassessment work in other similar ecosystems, particularly high-altitude tropical Ecuadorian streams.

Development of an electrostatic model predicting copper toxicity to plants.

The focus of the present study was to investigate the mechanisms for the alleviation of Cu toxicity in plants by coexistent cations (e.g. Al(3+), Mn(2+), Ca(2+), Mg(2+), H(+), Na(+), and K(+)) and the development of an electrostatic model to predict 50% effect activities (EA50s) accurately. The alleviation of Cu(2+) toxicity was evaluated in several plants in terms of (i) the electrical potential at the outer surface of the plasma membrane (PM) (Ψ(0)(°)) and (ii) competition between cations for sites at the PM involved in the uptake or toxicity of Cu(2+), the latter of which is invoked by the Biotic Ligand Model (BLM) as the sole explanation for the alleviation of toxicity. The addition of coexistent cations into the bulk-phase medium reduces the negativity of Ψ(0)(°) and hence decreases the activity of Cu(2+) at the PM surface. Our analyses suggest that the alleviation of toxicity results primarily from electrostatic effects (i.e. changes in both the Cu(2+) activity at the PM surface and the electrical driving force across the PM), and that BLM-type competitive effects may be of lesser importance in plants. Although this does not exclude the possibility of competition, the data highlight the importance of electrostatic effects. An electrostatic model was developed to predict Cu(2+) toxicity thresholds (EA50s), and the quality of its predictive capacity suggests its potential utility in risk assessment of copper in natural waters and soils.

A comparison of the short-term toxicity of cadmium to indigenous and alien gammarid species.

Amphipods play an important role in many aquatic ecosystems and are commonly used in ecotoxicology and ecosystem health assessment. Several alien gammarids have been introduced in many regions of the world during the last decades. In this study, we investigated if differences in cadmium sensitivity occurred between (1) different species belonging to the family Gammaridae and (2) different populations of the same species originating from a polluted or a non-polluted site. The acute cadmium toxicity to two indigenous (Gammarus pulex and Gammarus fossarum) and four alien (Dikerogammarus villosus, Echinogammarus berilloni, Gammarus roeseli and Gammarus tigrinus) gammarids occurring in Belgium was tested. Significant differences (P < 0.05) in median lethal concentrations (LC(50)) were found between the different species, with 72 h-LC50s ranging from 6.3 to 268 µg/l and 96 h-LC50s from 4.7 to 88.9 µg/l. No clear trend in Cd sensitivity was found when comparing indigenous and alien gammarids. D. villosus, an alien invasive species, was the most sensitive to Cd toxicity and E. berilloni, another alien species, the least sensitive. In addition, larger Gammarid species were more sensitive to Cd toxicity than smaller ones. No significant differences were found between populations of the same species originating from metal polluted sites or non-polluted sites. Overall, our results showed that considerable differences in Cd sensitivity exist between gammarid species, which should be taken into consideration in environmental risk assessment and water quality standard setting. Finally, our data suggest that alien gammarids would not have an advantage over indigenous gammarids in Cd contaminated environments.

A Bayesian Belief Network learning tool integrates multi-scale effects of riparian buffers on stream invertebrates.

Riparian forest buffers have multiple benefits for biodiversity and ecosystem services in both freshwater and terrestrial habitats but are rarely implemented in water ecosystem management, partly reflecting the lack of information on the effectiveness of this measure. In this context, social learning is valuable to inform stakeholders of the efficacy of riparian vegetation in mitigating stream degradation. We aim to develop a Bayesian belief network (BBN) model for application as a learning tool to simulate and assess the reach- and segment-scale effects of riparian vegetation properties and land use on instream invertebrates. We surveyed reach-scale riparian conditions, extracted segment-scale riparian and subcatchment land use information from geographic information system data, and collected macroinvertebrate samples from four catchments in Europe (Belgium, Norway, Romania, and Sweden). We modelled the ecological condition based on the Average Score Per Taxon (ASPT) index, a macroinvertebrate-based index widely used in European bioassessment, as a function of different riparian variables using the BBN modelling approach. The results of the model simulations provided insights into the usefulness of riparian vegetation attributes in enhancing the ecological condition, with reach-scale riparian vegetation quality associated with the strongest improvements in ecological status. Specifically, reach-scale buffer vegetation of score 3 (i.e. moderate quality) generally results in the highest probability of a good ASPT score (99-100%). In contrast, a site with a narrow width of riparian trees and a small area of trees with reach-scale buffer vegetation of score 1 (i.e. low quality) predicts a high probability of a bad ASPT score (74%). The strengths of the BBN model are the ease of interpretation, fast simulation, ability to explicitly indicate uncertainty in model outcomes, and interactivity. These merits point to the potential use of the BBN model in workshop activities to stimulate key learning processes that help inform the management of riparian zones.

Evaluation of an electrostatic toxicity model for predicting Ni(2+) toxicity to barley root elongation in hydroponic cultures and in soils.

Assessing environmental risks of metal contamination in soils is a complex task because the biologically effective concentrations of metals in soils vary widely with soil properties. The factors influencing the toxic effect of nickel (Ni) on root growth of barley (Hordeum vulgare) were re-evaluated using published data from both soil and hydroponic cultures. The electrical potential (ψ(0) (o) ) and ion activities ({I(z) }(0) (o) ) at the outer surfaces of root-cell plasma membranes (PMs) were computed as the basis of the re-evaluation. The reanalyses demonstrated that root growth was related to: the Ni(2+) activity at the PM surface, ({Ni(2+) }(0) (o) ); calcium (Ca) deficiency (related to {Ca(2+) }(0) (o) ); osmotic effects; and modification of intrinsic Ni(2+) toxicity by magnesium (Mg(2+) ; this appeared to exert an intrinsic (specific) ameliorating effect on intrinsic Ni(2+) toxicity). Electrostatic toxicity models (ETM) were developed to relate root growth to these factors (R(2) > 0.751). Based on the ETM developed in soil culture and a Ni(2+) solid-solution partitioning model, critical metal concentrations in soils linked to a biological effect were well predicted for 16 European soils with a wide range of properties, indicating the potential utility of ETM in risk assessment of metals in terrestrial ecosystems.

Integrated ecological modelling for evidence-based determination of water management interventions in urbanized river basins: Case study in the Cuenca River basin (Ecuador).

The growth of urbanization worldwide has contributed to the deterioration of the ecological status of water bodies. Efforts at improving the ecological status have been made either in isolated form or by means of integrated measures by stakeholders, but in many cases, these measures have not been evaluated to determine their benefit. In this study, we implemented a scenario analysis to restore the ecological water quality in the Cuenca River and its tributaries, which are located in the southern Andes of Ecuador. For this analysis, an integrated ecological model (IEM) was developed. The IEM linked an urban wastewater system (IUWS) model, which gave satisfactory results in its calibration and validation processes, with ecological models. The IUWS is a mechanistic model that incorporated the river water quality model, a wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) with activated sludge technology, and discharges from the sewage system. The ecological status of the waterways was evaluated with the Andean Biotic Index (ABI), which was predicted using generalized linear models (GLMs). The GLMs were calculated with physicochemical results from the IUWS model. Four scenarios that would enhance the current ecological water quality were analyzed. In these scenarios, the inclusion of a new WWTP with carbon, and with carbon and nitrogen removal as well as the addition of retention tanks before the discharges of combined sewer overflows (CSOs) were assessed. The new WWTP with carbon and nitrogen removal would bring about a better restoration of the ecological water quality due to better nitrogen removal. The retention tanks would help to enhance the ecological status of the rivers during rainy seasons. The integrated model implemented in this study was shown to be an essential tool to support decisions in the Cuenca River basin management.

A database of threat statuses and life-history traits of Red List species in Flanders (northern Belgium).

BACKGROUND: Red Lists estimate the extinction risk of species at global or regional levels and are important instruments in conservation policies. Global Red List assessments are readily available via the IUCN website (https://www.iucnredlist.org) and are regularly updated by (taxonomic) experts. Regional Red Lists, however, are not always easy to find and often use local criteria to assess the local extinction risk of species. NEW INFORMATION: Here, we publish a database with the outcome of 38 Red List assessments in Flanders (northern Belgium) between 1994 and 2018. In total, the database contains 6,224 records of 5,039 unique taxa pertaining to 24 different taxonomic groups. Using a quality control procedure, we evaluated the criteria used, the number of records, the temporal and spatial distribution of the data and the up-to-dateness of the Red Lists. This way, nineteen Red Lists were approved as being of sufficient high quality (i.e. validated) and nineteen others were not. Once validated, Red Lists are approved by the regional Minister of Environment and published in the Belgian Official Gazette acquiring legal status. For the validated Red Lists, we additionally compiled (life-history) traits that are applicable to a wide variety of species groups (taxonomic kingdom, environment, biotope, nutrient level, dispersal capacity, lifespan and cuddliness). The publication of this dataset allows comparison of Red List statuses with other European regions and countries and permits analyses about how certain (life-history) traits can explain the Red List status of species. The dataset will be regularly updated by adding new Red List (re)assessments and/or additional (life-history) traits.

Influence of soil properties on copper toxicity for two soil invertebrates.

Although a large body of evidence indicates that metal toxicity to soil organisms is affected by physicochemical soil properties, use of this knowledge in ecological risk assessments is limited because of the lack of a model applicable to a wide range of soils. To study the effect of soil characteristics on the toxicity of copper to terrestrial invertebrates, chronic toxicity tests with Eisenia fetida and Folsomia candida were performed in 19 European field soils. These soils were carefully selected to cover the range of toxicity-influencing parameters encountered in the European Union. Toxicity values varied greatly among soils, with 28-d median effect concentrations ranging from 72.0 to 781 mg Cu/kg dry weight for E. fetida and from 45.4 to 2,270 mg Cu/kg dry weight for F. candida. For both species, variation in copper toxicity values was best explained by differences in the actual cation-exchange capacity (CEC) at soil pH. Using the obtained regression algorithms, the observed toxicity could, in most cases, be predicted within a factor of two for E. fetida and within a factor of three for F. candida. The developed models were validated in three additional European field soils, a standard artificial soil and a standard field soil. The presented regression equations, based on the actual CEC, offer an easy-to-apply method for taking the influence of soil properties on metal toxicity into account.

Development of a biotic ligand model (BLM) predicting nickel toxicity to barley (Hordeum vulgare).

A biotic ligand model (BLM) was developed to predict nickel toxicity, affecting root growth of barley (Hordeum vulgare), in nutrient solutions. The extent to which Ca(2+), Mg(2+), Na(+), K(+) ions and pH each influenced nickel toxicity was determined. Higher activities of Mg(2+) linearly increased the 4d EC50 Ni (2+) , while Ca(2+), Na(+), K(+) and H(+) activities did not significantly influence Ni(2+) toxicity. Stability constants for the binding of Ni(2+) and Mg(2+) to the biotic ligand were obtained: logK(NiBL)=5.27 and logK(MgBL)=3.47. Further, it was calculated that on average 57% of the biotic ligand sites needed to be occupied by nickel to induce 50% root growth inhibition. Auto-validation of the BLM indicated that predicted EC50s differed from the observed EC50s by a factor of less than 2, indicating that the BLM concept may also be used to predict metal toxicity to terrestrial plants.

Effect of leaching and aging on the bioavailability of lead to the springtail Folsomia candida.

Because it is unclear if leaching can account for differences in metal bioavailability observed between metal-spiked soils and historically contaminated field soils, we simultaneously assessed Pb toxicity to the springtail Folsomia candida in three transects of Pb-contaminated soils and in leached and unleached soils spiked at similar total Pb concentrations. Total Pb concentrations of 3,877 mg/kg dry weight and higher always caused significant effects on F. candida reproduction in the spiked soils. In the transects, only the soil with the highest Pb concentration of 14,436 mg/kg dry weight significantly affected reproduction. When expressed as pore-water concentrations, reproduction was never significantly affected at Pb concentrations of 0.539 mg/L, whereas reproduction was always significantly affected at Pb concentrations of 0.678 mg/L and higher, independent of the soil treatment. These results indicate that pore-water Pb concentrations can explain, at least in part, the observed differences in the toxicity data expressed as total Pb concentrations. Leaching after the spiking procedure only caused small differences in Pb toxicity and, therefore, cannot account for toxicity differences between laboratory-spiked soils and historically contaminated field soils.

Influence of aging on metal availability in soils.

An overview is given on the literature concerning the effect of long-term processes, called aging, on metal availability, and consequences for risk assessment of metal-contaminated soils are discussed. Experiments with freshly prepared metal oxyhydroxides and calcites overpredict the influence of aging because of the initial transformations occurring in these systems. Also, freshly ground clays are not representative of field soils because the surface area exposed for fixation is unrealistically high. Experiments with field soils confirm the hypothesis that metal availability can decrease as a result of aging, especially for metals with a small ionic radius. Although aging also seems to affect metal uptake, it should be noted that some organisms are able to regulate their internal metal concentrations within a narrow range, especially for essential elements. Deficiency of essential metals as well as metal toxicity to plants and invertebrates seem to be related to the environmental availability of these metals. Unfortunately, aging effects are often confounded by differences in soil properties between freshly spiked and historically contaminated soils. Environmental parameters such as temperature, moisture content, drying and rewetting cycles, and pH affect the rate of aging, whereas pH seems to be the sole important parameter affecting the extent of aging.

Ecotoxicity of nickel to Eisenia fetida, Enchytraeus albidus and Folsomia candida.

Despite growing concern about the potential adverse effects of elevated nickel concentrations in the environment, only a few toxicity data are available for terrestrial invertebrates. Therefore, chronic toxicity of nickel was assessed for Eisenia fetida, Enchytraeus albidus and Folsomia candida, the three invertebrates for which standard test protocols are available. The 21 d EC50 for the cocoon production of E. fetida was 362 (241-508) mg Ni/kg dry wt. For the reproduction of E. albidus, a 42 d EC50 of 275 (217-346) mg Ni/kg dry wt was observed. The 28 d EC50 for the reproduction of F. candida was 476 (347-671) mg Ni/kg dry wt. The obtained toxicity data were very similar to those of related species reported in literature. Although the presented data can be considered as a step forward in the assessment of the potential risks of nickel in terrestrial environments, further research is needed to evaluate the influence of soil parameters on the toxicity of nickel and to quantify the effect of ageing on bioavailability.

Comparative toxicity of a zinc salt, zinc powder and zinc oxide to Eisenia fetida, Enchytraeus albidus and Folsomia candida.

The pore water zinc concentration and the calcium chloride extracted zinc fraction are higher in the soils spiked with a zinc salt (ZnCl2) compared to soils spiked with zinc oxide or zinc powder. Based on total zinc concentrations in the soil, the acute toxicity of zinc salt to the compost worm Eisenia fetida, the potworm Enchytraeus albidus and the springtail Folsomia candida was lower compared to zinc oxide and zinc powder. However, when expressed on the basis of pore water concentrations or calcium chloride extracted fractions, acute toxicity was higher for zinc salt, which indicated that dermal uptake via the pore water is not the only route of uptake. Chronic toxicity of zinc salt, zinc oxide and zinc powder was similar when based on total concentrations in the soil which again indicates that the pore water route of uptake is not the only route of exposure but that oral uptake is also important.

Influence of aging on copper bioavailability in soils.

Because of long-term chemical processes, metal bioavailability in field soils decreases with time. Metal toxicity may, therefore, be overestimated if toxicity data with freshly spiked soils are used to derive soil quality criteria, a current practice. In the present study, effects of the long-term processes, called aging, on copper partitioning and ecotoxicity are investigated. Twenty-five field soils contaminated by copper runoff from bronze statues and 25 uncontaminated control soils sampled at 5-m distance from these statues were collected in Flanders (Belgium). The soils were selected so that parameters affecting copper bioavailability (pH, cation-exchange capacity, organic matter content, etc.) varied considerably. To assess the effect of aging on copper toxicity, control soils were spiked at total copper concentrations comparable to those of historically contaminated soils. Pore-water copper concentrations and 0.01 M CaCl2-extracted copper concentrations were significantly higher in freshly spiked soils compared to contaminated field soils. However, this could be a pH effect, because pH decreased after spiking. Acute toxicity to Enchytraeus albidus (14 d) as well as chronic toxicity to Folsomia candida (28-d reproduction) and Trifolium pratense (14-d growth) indicated a dose-response relationship between copper toxicity and pore-water copper concentration or the CaCl2-extracted copper fraction.

Modelling the effects of copper on soil organisms and processes using the free ion approach: towards a multi-species toxicity model.

The free ion approach has been previously used to calculate critical limit concentrations for soil metals based on point estimates of toxicity. Here, the approach was applied to dose-response data for copper effects on seven biological endpoints in each of 19 European soils. The approach was applied using the concept of an effective dose, comprising a function of the concentrations of free copper and 'protective' major cations, including H(+). A significant influence of H(+) on the toxicity of Cu(2+) was found, while the effects of other cations were inconsistent. The model could be generalised by forcing the effect of H(+) and the slope of the dose-response relationship to be equal for all endpoints. This suggests the possibility of a general bioavailability model for copper effects on organisms. Furthermore, the possibility of such a model could be explored for other cationic metals such as nickel, zinc, cadmium and lead.

Ecotoxicity of chromium (III) to Eisenia fetida, Enchytraeus albidus, and Folsomia candida.

Despite growing concerns about the potential adverse effects of elevated chromium concentrations in the environment, only a few terrestrial toxicity data are available. Therefore, chronic toxicity of chromium(III) was assessed for Eisenia fetida, Enchytraeus albidus, and Folsomia candida, the three invertebrates for which standard test protocols are available. The 21-day EC(50) for the cocoon production of E. fetida was 892 (679-1110) mg Cr/kg dry weight. Based on the reproduction, a 42-days EC(50) of 637 (355-791) mg Cr/kg dry weight was observed for E. albidus, while for F. candida a 28-day EC(50) of 604 (254-3380) mg Cr/kg dry weight was noted. Although the presented data can be considered a step forward in the assessment of the potential risks of chromium(III) in terrestrial environments, further research is needed to evaluate the influence of soil parameters on the toxicity of chromium and to quantify the effect of aging on bioavailability.