The Combined Expression of the Nonstructural Protein NS1 and the N-Terminal Half of NS2 (NS21-180) by ChAdOx1 and MVA Confers Protection against Clinical Disease in Sheep upon Bluetongue Virus Challenge.

Bluetongue, caused by bluetongue virus (BTV), is a widespread arthropod-borne disease of ruminants that entails a recurrent threat to the primary sector of developed and developing countries. In this work, we report modified vaccinia virus Ankara (MVA) and ChAdOx1-vectored vaccines designed to simultaneously express the immunogenic NS1 protein and/or NS2-Nt, the N-terminal half of protein NS2 (NS21-180). A single dose of MVA or ChAdOx1 expressing NS1-NS2-Nt improved the protection conferred by NS1 alone in IFNAR(-/-) mice. Moreover, mice immunized with ChAdOx1/MVA-NS1, ChAdOx1/MVA-NS2-Nt, or ChAdOx1/MVA-NS1-NS2-Nt developed strong cytotoxic CD8+ T-cell responses against NS1, NS2-Nt, or both proteins and were fully protected against a lethal infection with BTV serotypes 1, 4, and 8. Furthermore, although a single immunization with ChAdOx1-NS1-NS2-Nt partially protected sheep against BTV-4, the administration of a booster dose of MVA-NS1-NS2-Nt promoted a faster viral clearance, reduction of the period and level of viremia and also protected from the pathology produced by BTV infection. IMPORTANCE Current BTV vaccines are effective but they do not allow to distinguish between vaccinated and infected animals (DIVA strategy) and are serotype specific. In this work we have develop a DIVA multiserotype vaccination strategy based on adenoviral (ChAdOx1) and MVA vaccine vectors, the most widely used in current phase I and II clinical trials, and the conserved nonstructural BTV proteins NS1 and NS2. This immunization strategy solves the major drawbacks of the current marketed vaccines.

CD8 T Cell Responses to an Immunodominant Epitope within the Nonstructural Protein NS1 Provide Wide Immunoprotection against Bluetongue Virus in IFNAR-/- Mice.

The development of vaccines against bluetongue, a prevalent livestock disease, has been focused on surface antigens that induce strong neutralizing antibody responses. Because of their antigenic variability, these vaccines are usually serotype restricted. We now show that a single highly conserved nonstructural protein, NS1, expressed in a modified vaccinia Ankara virus (MVA) vector can provide multiserotype protection in IFNAR-/- 129 mice against bluetongue virus (BTV) that is largely dependent on CD8 T cell responses. We found that the protective antigenic capacity of NS1 resides within the N terminus of the protein and is provided in the absence of neutralizing antibodies. The protective CD8 T cell response requires the presence of a specific peptide within the N terminus of NS1, since its deletion ablates the efficacy of the vaccine formulation. These data reveal the importance of the nonstructural protein NS1 in CD8 T cell-mediated protection against multiple BTV serotypes when vectorized as a recombinant MVA vaccine.IMPORTANCE Conventional vaccines have controlled or limited BTV expansion in the past, but they cannot address the need for cross-protection among serotypes and do not allow distinguishing between infected and vaccinated animals (DIVA strategy). There is a need to develop universal vaccines that induce effective protection against multiple BTV serotypes. In this work we have shown the importance of the nonstructural protein NS1, conserved among all the BTV serotypes, in CD8 T cell-mediated protection against multiple BTV serotypes when vectorized as a recombinant MVA vaccine.

Efficacy of different DNA and MVA prime-boost vaccination regimens against a Rift Valley fever virus (RVFV) challenge in sheep 12 weeks following vaccination.

The aim of this work was to evaluate the immunogenicity and efficacy of DNA and MVA vaccines encoding the RVFV glycoproteins Gn and Gc in an ovine model of RVFV infection. Adult sheep of both sexes were challenged 12 weeks after the last immunization and clinical, virological, biochemical and immunological consequences, were analyzed. Strategies based on immunization with homologous DNA or heterologous DNA/MVA prime-boost were able to induce a rapid in vitro neutralizing antibody response as well as IFNγ production after in vitro virus specific re-stimulation. In these animals we observed reduced viremia levels and less clinical signs when compared with mock-immunized controls. In contrast, sheep inoculated with a homologous MVA prime-boost showed increased viremia correlating with the absence of detectable neutralizing antibody responses, despite of inducing cellular responses after the last immunization. However, faster induction of neutralizing antibodies and IFNγ production after challenge were found in this group when compared to the mock vaccinated group, indicative of a primed immune response. In conclusion, these results suggest that vaccination strategies based on DNA priming were able to mount and maintain specific anti-RVFV glycoprotein immune responses upon homologous or heterologous booster doses, warranting further optimization in large animal models of infection.

Potential application of silver nanoparticles to control the infectivity of Rift Valley fever virus in vitro and in vivo.

In this work we have tested the potential antiviral activity of silver nanoparticles formulated as Argovit™ against Rift Valley fever virus (RVFV). The antiviral activity of Argovit was tested on Vero cell cultures and in type-I interferon receptor deficient mice (IFNAR (-/-) mice) by two different approaches: (i) different dilutions of Argovit were added to previously infected cells or administrated to animals infected with a lethal dose of virus; (ii) virus was pre-incubated with different dilutions of Argovit before inoculation in mice or cells. Though the ability of silver nanoparticles to control an ongoing RVFV infection in the conditions tested was limited, the incubation of virus with Argovit before the infection led to a reduction of the infectivity titers both in vitro and in vivo. These results reveal the potential application of silver nanoparticles to control the infectivity of RVFV, which is an important zoonotic pathogen.

Nucleotide Resolution Mapping of Rift Valley Fever Virus Nucleoprotein-Genome RNA Interactions.

Rift Valley fever virus (RVFV; genus Phlebovirus, family Phenuiviridae, order Bunyavirales) is a mosquito-borne zoonotic pathogen endemic in Africa. Its negative-stranded genomic RNA (vRNA) is divided into three segments termed L, M, and S. Both vRNAs and antigenomic cRNAs are encapsidated by viral nucleoprotein (N) to form nucleocapsids, which constitute the template for genome transcription and replication. Based on a number of electron microscopy and structural studies, the viral RNAs of negative-strand RNA viruses, including phleboviruses, are commonly considered to be entirely and uniformly covered by N protein. However, high resolution data supporting this notion was missing to date.Here, we describe a method how to globally map all N-RNA interactions of RVFV by using iCLIP (individual-nucleotide resolution UV cross-linking and immunoprecipitation). The protocol is based on covalent cross-linking of direct protein-RNA interactions by UV irradiation. Following sample lysis, a selective isolation of N in complex with its RNA targets is achieved by immunoprecipitation. Then, N-RNA complexes are separated by SDS-PAGE, and after membrane transfer, RNA is isolated and subjected to library preparation and high-throughput sequencing. We explain how the standard iCLIP protocol can be adapted to RVFV N-RNA interaction studies. The protocol describes mapping of all N interactions with the vRNAs and cRNAs derived either from RVFV particles or from infected cells.

Co-expression of VP2, NS1 and NS2-Nt proteins by an MVA viral vector induces complete protection against bluetongue virus.

Introduction: Bluetongue (BT), caused by bluetongue virus (BTV), is an important arthropod-borne livestock disease listed by the World Organization for Animal Health. Live-attenuated and inactivated vaccines have permitted to control BT but they do not simultaneously protect against the myriad of BTV serotypes. Recently, we identified the highly conserved BTV nonstructural protein NS1 and the N-terminal region of NS2 as antigens capable of conferring multiserotype protection against BTV. Methods: Here, we designed Modified Vaccinia Ankara (MVA) viral vectors that expressed BTV-4 proteins VP2 or VP7 along with NS1 and NS2-Nt as well as MVAs that expressed proteins VP2, VP7 or NS1 and NS2-Nt. Results: Immunization of IFNAR(-/-) mice with two doses of MVA-NS1-2A-NS2-Nt protected mice from BTV-4M infection by the induction of an antigen-specific T cell immune response. Despite rMVA expressing VP7 alone were not protective in the IFNAR(-/-) mouse model, inclusion of VP7 in the vaccine formulation amplified the cell-mediated response induced by NS1 and NS2-Nt. Expression of VP2 elicited protective non-cross-reactive neutralizing antibodies (nAbs) in immunized animals and improved the protection observed in the MVA-NS1-2A-NS2-Nt immunized mice when these three BTV antigens were co-expressed. Moreover, vaccines candidates co-expressing VP2 or VP7 along with NS1 and NS2-Nt provided multiserotype protection. We assessed protective efficacy of both vaccine candidates in sheep against virulent challenge with BTV-4M. Discussion: Immunization with MVA-VP7-NS1-2A-NS2-Nt partially dumped viral replication and clinical disease whereas administration of MVA-VP2-NS1-2A-NS2-Nt promoted a complete protection, preventing viraemia and the pathology produced by BTV infection.

Engineering recombinant replication-competent bluetongue viruses expressing reporter genes for in vitro and non-invasive in vivo studies.

Bluetongue virus (BTV) is the causative agent of the important livestock disease bluetongue (BT), which is transmitted via Culicoides bites. BT causes severe economic losses associated with its considerable impact on health and trade of animals. By reverse genetics, we have designed and rescued reporter-expressing recombinant (r)BTV expressing NanoLuc luciferase (NLuc) or Venus fluorescent protein. To generate these viruses, we custom synthesized a modified viral segment 5 encoding NS1 protein with the reporter genes located downstream and linked by the Porcine teschovirus-1 (PTV-1) 2A autoproteolytic cleavage site. Therefore, fluorescent signal or luciferase activity is only detected after virus replication and expression of non-structural proteins. Fluorescence or luminescence signals were detected in cells infected with rBTV/Venus or rBTV/NLuc, respectively. Moreover, the marking of NS2 protein confirmed that reporter genes were only expressed in BTV-infected cells. Growth kinetics of rBTV/NLuc and rBTV/Venus in Vero cells showed replication rates similar to those of wild-type and rBTV. Infectivity studies of these recombinant viruses in IFNAR(-/-) mice showed a higher lethal dose for rBTV/NLuc and rBTV/Venus than for rBTV indicating that viruses expressing the reporter genes are attenuated in vivo. Interestingly, luciferase activity was detected in the plasma of viraemic mice infected with rBTV/NLuc. Furthermore, luciferase activity quantitatively correlated with RNAemia levels of infected mice throughout the infection. In addition, we have investigated the in vivo replication and dissemination of BTV in IFNAR (-/-) mice using BTV/NLuc and non-invasive in vivo imaging systems.IMPORTANCEThe use of replication-competent viruses that encode a traceable fluorescent or luciferase reporter protein has significantly contributed to the in vitro and in vivo study of viral infections and the development of novel therapeutic approaches. In this work, we have generated rBTV that express fluorescent or luminescence proteins to track BTV infection both in vitro and in vivo. Despite the availability of vaccines, BTV and other related orbivirus are still associated with a significant impact on animal health and have important economic consequences worldwide. Our studies may contribute to the advance in orbivirus research and pave the way for the rapid development of new treatments, including vaccines.

Nucleocapsids of the Rift Valley fever virus ambisense S segment contain an exposed RNA element in the center that overlaps with the intergenic region.

Rift Valley fever virus (RVFV) is a mosquito-borne zoonotic pathogen. Its RNA genome consists of two negative-sense segments (L and M) with one gene each, and one ambisense segment (S) with two opposing genes separated by the noncoding "intergenic region" (IGR). These vRNAs and the complementary cRNAs are encapsidated by nucleoprotein (N). Using iCLIP2 (individual-nucleotide resolution UV crosslinking and immunoprecipitation) to map all N-vRNA and N-cRNA interactions, we detect N coverage along the L and M segments. However, the S segment vRNA and cRNA each contain approximately 100 non-encapsidated nucleotides stretching from the IGR into the 5'-adjacent reading frame. These exposed regions are RNase-sensitive and predicted to form stem-loop structures with the mRNA transcription termination motif positioned near the top. Moreover, optimal S segment transcription and replication requires the entire exposed region rather than only the IGR. Thus, the RVFV S segment contains a central, non-encapsidated RNA region with a functional role.

Safety and Efficacy upon Infection in Sheep with Rift Valley Fever Virus ZH548-rA2, a Triple Mutant Rescued Virus.

The introduction of three single nucleotide mutations into the genome of the virulent RVFV ZH548 strain allows for the rescue of a fully attenuated virus in mice (ZH548-rA2). These mutations are located in the viral genes encoding the RdRp and the non-structural protein NSs. This paper shows the results obtained after the subcutaneous inoculation of ZH548-rA2 in adult sheep and the subsequent challenge with the parental virus (ZH548-rC1). Inoculation with the ZH548-rA2 virus caused no detectable clinical or pathological effect in sheep, whereas inoculation of the parental rC1 virus caused lesions compatible with viral infection characterised by the presence of scattered hepatic necrosis. Viral infection was confirmed via immunohistochemistry, with hepatocytes within the necrotic foci appearing as the main cells immunolabelled against viral antigen. Furthermore, the inoculation of sheep with the rA2 virus prevented the liver damage expected after rC1 virus inoculation, suggesting a protective efficacy in sheep which correlated with the induction of both humoral and cell-mediated immune responses.

Immunogenicity and efficacy of a chimpanzee adenovirus-vectored Rift Valley fever vaccine in mice.

BACKGROUND: Rift Valley Fever (RVF) is a viral zoonosis that historically affects livestock production and human health in sub-Saharan Africa, though epizootics have also occurred in the Arabian Peninsula. Whilst an effective live-attenuated vaccine is available for livestock, there is currently no licensed human RVF vaccine. Replication-deficient chimpanzee adenovirus (ChAd) vectors are an ideal platform for development of a human RVF vaccine, given the low prevalence of neutralizing antibodies against them in the human population, and their excellent safety and immunogenicity profile in human clinical trials of vaccines against a wide range of pathogens. METHODS: Here, in BALB/c mice, we evaluated the immunogenicity and efficacy of a replication-deficient chimpanzee adenovirus vector, ChAdOx1, encoding the RVF virus envelope glycoproteins, Gn and Gc, which are targets of virus neutralizing antibodies. The ChAdOx1-GnGc vaccine was assessed in comparison to a replication-deficient human adenovirus type 5 vector encoding Gn and Gc (HAdV5-GnGc), a strategy previously shown to confer protective immunity against RVF in mice. RESULTS: A single immunization with either of the vaccines conferred protection against RVF virus challenge eight weeks post-immunization. Both vaccines elicited RVF virus neutralizing antibody and a robust CD8+ T cell response. CONCLUSIONS: Together the results support further development of RVF vaccines based on replication-deficient adenovirus vectors, with ChAdOx1-GnGc being a potential candidate for use in future human clinical trials.

Epizootic Hemorrhagic Disease Virus: Current Knowledge and Emerging Perspectives.

Epizootic Hemorrhagic Disease (EHD) of ruminants is a viral pathology that has significant welfare, social, and economic implications. The causative agent, epizootic hemorrhagic disease virus (EHDV), belongs to the Orbivirus genus and leads to significant regional disease outbreaks among livestock and wildlife in North America, Asia, Africa, and Oceania, causing significant morbidity and mortality. During the past decade, this viral disease has become a real threat for countries of the Mediterranean basin, with the recent occurrence of several important outbreaks in livestock. Moreover, the European Union registered the first cases of EHDV ever detected within its territory. Competent vectors involved in viral transmission, Culicoides midges, are expanding its distribution, conceivably due to global climate change. Therefore, livestock and wild ruminants around the globe are at risk for this serious disease. This review provides an overview of current knowledge about EHDV, including changes of distribution and virulence, an examination of different animal models of disease, and a discussion about potential treatments to control the disease.

Immunization with a small fragment of the Schmallenberg virus nucleoprotein highly conserved across the Orthobunyaviruses of the Simbu serogroup reduces viremia in SBV challenged IFNAR-/- mice.

Schmallenberg Virus (SBV), an arbovirus from the Peribunyaviridae family and Orthobunyavirus genus, was discovered in late 2011 in Germany and has been circulating in Europe, Asia and Africa ever since. The virus causes a disease associated with ruminants that includes fever, fetal malformation, drop in milk production, diarrhoea and stillbirths, becoming a burden for small and large farms. Building on previous studies on SBV nucleoprotein (SBV-N) as a promising vaccine candidate, we have investigated the possible protein regions responsible for protection. Based on selective truncation of domains designed from the available crystal structure of the SBV-N, we identified both the N-terminal domain (N-term; Met1 - Thr133) and a smaller fragment within (C4; Met1 - Ala58) as vaccine prototypes. Two injections of the N-term and C4 polypeptides protected mice knockout for type I interferon (IFN) receptors (IFNAR-/-) challenged with virulent SBV, opposite to control groups that presented severe signs of morbidity and weight loss. Viremia analyses along with the presence of IFN-γ secreted from splenocytes re-stimulated with the N-terminal region of the protein corroborate that these two portions of SBV-N can be employed as subunit vaccines. Apart from both proteinaceous fragments being easily produced in bacterial cells, the C4 polypeptide shares a high sequence homology (∼87.1 %) with the corresponding region of nucleoproteins of several viruses of the Simbu serogroup, a group of Orthobunyaviruses that comprises SBV and veterinary pathogens like Akabane virus and human infecting viruses like Oropouche. Thus, we propose that this smaller fragment is better suited for vaccine nanoparticle formulation, and it paves the way to further research with other related Orthobunyaviruses.

Vaccinia Virus Strain MVA Expressing a Prefusion-Stabilized SARS-CoV-2 Spike Glycoprotein Induces Robust Protection and Prevents Brain Infection in Mouse and Hamster Models.

The COVID-19 pandemic has underscored the importance of swift responses and the necessity of dependable technologies for vaccine development. Our team previously developed a fast cloning system for the modified vaccinia virus Ankara (MVA) vaccine platform. In this study, we reported on the construction and preclinical testing of a recombinant MVA vaccine obtained using this system. We obtained recombinant MVA expressing the unmodified full-length SARS-CoV-2 spike (S) protein containing the D614G amino-acid substitution (MVA-Sdg) and a version expressing a modified S protein containing amino-acid substitutions designed to stabilize the protein a in a pre-fusion conformation (MVA-Spf). S protein expressed by MVA-Sdg was found to be expressed and was correctly processed and transported to the cell surface, where it efficiently produced cell-cell fusion. Version Spf, however, was not proteolytically processed, and despite being transported to the plasma membrane, it failed to induce cell-cell fusion. We assessed both vaccine candidates in prime-boost regimens in the susceptible transgenic K18-human angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (K18-hACE2) in mice and in golden Syrian hamsters. Robust immunity and protection from disease was induced with either vaccine in both animal models. Remarkably, the MVA-Spf vaccine candidate produced higher levels of antibodies, a stronger T cell response, and a higher degree of protection from challenge. In addition, the level of SARS-CoV-2 in the brain of MVA-Spf inoculated mice was decreased to undetectable levels. Those results add to our current experience and range of vaccine vectors and technologies for developing a safe and effective COVID-19 vaccine.

Rift valley fever: recent insights into pathogenesis and prevention.

Rift Valley fever virus (RVFV) is a zoonotic pathogen that primarily affects ruminants but can also be lethal in humans. A negative-stranded RNA virus of the family Bunyaviridae, this pathogen is transmitted mainly via mosquito vectors. RVFV has shown the ability to inflict significant damage to livestock and is also a threat to public health. While outbreaks have traditionally occurred in sub-Saharan Africa, recent outbreaks in the Middle East have raised awareness of the potential of this virus to spread to Europe, Asia, and the Americas. Although the virus was initially characterized almost 80 years ago, the only vaccine approved for widespread veterinary use is an attenuated strain that has been associated with significant pathogenic side effects. However, increased understanding of the molecular biology of the virus over the last few years has led to recent advances in vaccine design and has enabled the development of more-potent prophylactic measures to combat infection. In this review, we discuss several aspects of RVFV, with particular emphasis on the molecular components of the virus and their respective roles in pathogenesis and an overview of current vaccine candidates. Progress in understanding the epidemiology of Rift Valley fever has also enabled prediction of potential outbreaks well in advance, thus providing another tool to combat the physical and economic impact of this disease.

Isolation and structural characterization of acrylamide-pyridoxamine adducts.

Pyridoxamine (PM) is an effective inhibitor of the formation of the carcinogen acrylamide (AA) from its precursors in low-moisture model systems. Although AA is widely assumed to act by scavenging carbonyl compounds, no alternative pathways have to date been explored. In this work, we found AA to directly react with PM in a low-moisture acrylamide-pyridoxamine model system heated at 140 °C for up to 40 min. The reaction products gave four major chromatographic peaks that were assigned to acrylamide-pyridoxamine adducts. Two of the adducts (AA-PM-1 and AA-PM-3) were selected for isolation and structural characterization with various spectroscopic (UV, fluorescence, IR, and NMR) and mass spectrometric techniques (MS, MS/MS). As shown by the proposed reaction scheme, PM can directly react with AA via Michael addition. The reaction involves a nucleophilic attack of the PM amine group on AA (an α,ß-unsaturated carbonyl compound) to give adduct AA-PM-3, which was identified as 3-(((3-hydroxy-5-(hydroxymethyl)-2-methylpyridin-4-yl)methyl)amino)propanamide. However, AA-PM-3 further reacts with any additional AA present in the medium to give adduct AA-PM-1 identified as 3,3'-(((3-hydroxy-5-(hydroxymethyl)-2-methylpyridin-4-yl)methyl)azanediyl)dipropanamide. The time courses of these adduct formation reactions were studied in cookies supplemented with PM, where AA-PM-3 was found to be the predominant structure.

MVA Vectored Vaccines Encoding Rift Valley Fever Virus Glycoproteins Protect Mice against Lethal Challenge in the Absence of Neutralizing Antibody Responses.

In vitro neutralizing antibodies have been often correlated with protection against Rift Valley fever virus (RVFV) infection. We have reported previously that a single inoculation of sucrose-purified modified vaccinia Ankara (MVA) encoding RVFV glycoproteins (rMVAGnGc) was sufficient to induce a protective immune response in mice after a lethal RVFV challenge. Protection was related to the presence of glycoprotein specific CD8+ cells, with a low-level detection of in vitro neutralizing antibodies. In this work we extended those observations aimed to explore the role of humoral responses after MVA vaccination and to study the contribution of each glycoprotein antigen to the protective efficacy. Thus, we tested the efficacy and immune responses in BALB/c mice of recombinant MVA viruses expressing either glycoprotein Gn (rMVAGn) or Gc (rMVAGc). In the absence of serum neutralizing antibodies, our data strongly suggest that protection of vaccinated mice upon the RVFV challenge can be achieved by the activation of cellular responses mainly directed against Gc epitopes. The involvement of cellular immunity was stressed by the fact that protection of mice was strain dependent. Furthermore, our data suggest that the rMVA based single dose vaccination elicits suboptimal humoral immune responses against Gn antigen since disease in mice was exacerbated upon virus challenge in the presence of rMVAGnGc or rMVAGn immune serum. Thus, Gc-specific cellular immunity could be an important component in the protection after the challenge observed in BALB/c mice, contributing to the elimination of infected cells reducing morbidity and mortality and counteracting the deleterious effect of a subneutralizing antibody immune response.

A protective bivalent vaccine against Rift Valley fever and bluetongue.

Rift Valley fever (RVF) and bluetongue (BT) are two important ruminant diseases transmitted by arthropods. Both viruses have shown important geographic spread leading to endemicity of BT virus (BTV) in Africa and Europe. In this work, we report a dual vaccine that simultaneously induces protective immune responses against BTV and RVFV based on modified vaccinia Ankara virus (MVA) expressing BTV proteins VP2, NS1, or a truncated form of NS1 (NS1-Nt), and RVFV Gn and Gc glycoproteins. IFNAR(-/-) mice immunized with two doses of MVA-GnGc-VP2 developed a significant neutralizing antibody response against BTV-4 and RVFV. Furthermore, the homologous prime-boost immunization with MVA-GnGc-NS1 or MVA-GnGc-NS1-Nt triggered neutralizing antibodies against RVFV and NS1-specific cytotoxic CD8+ T cells in mice. Moreover, all mice immunized with MVA-GnGc-NS1 or MVA-GnGc-NS1-Nt remained healthy after lethal challenge with RVFV or BTV-4. The homologous prime-boost vaccination with MVA-GnGc-NS1, which was the best immunization strategy observed in mice, was assayed in sheep. Clinical signs and viremia were absent or highly reduced in vaccinated sheep after challenge with BTV-4 or RVFV. These results indicate that MVA-GnGc-NS1 vaccination elicits immune protection against RVFV and BTV in sheep.

A novel Schmallenberg virus subunit vaccine candidate protects IFNAR-/- mice against virulent SBV challenge.

Schmallenberg virus (SBV), an arthropod-transmitted pathogenic bunyavirus, continues to be a threat to the European livestock industry, causing morbidity and mortality among young ruminant livestock. Here, we describe a novel SBV subunit vaccine, based on bacterially expressed SBV nucleoprotein (SBV-N) administered with a veterinary-grade Saponin adjuvant. When assayed in an IFNAR-/- mouse model, SBV-N with Saponin induced strong non-neutralizing broadly virus-reactive antibodies, decreased clinical signs, as well as significantly reduced viremia. Vaccination assays also suggest that this level of immune protection is cell mediated, as evidenced by the lack of neutralizing antibodies, as well as interferon-γ secretion observed in vitro. Therefore, based on these results, bacterially expressed SBV-N, co-administered with veterinary-grade Saponin adjuvant may serve as a promising economical alternative to current SBV vaccines, and warrant further evaluation in large ruminant animal models. Moreover, we propose that this strategy may be applicable to other bunyaviruses.

Heterologous Combination of ChAdOx1 and MVA Vectors Expressing Protein NS1 as Vaccination Strategy to Induce Durable and Cross-Protective CD8+ T Cell Immunity to Bluetongue Virus.

The sequence of non-structural protein NS1 of bluetongue virus (BTV), which contains immunodominant CD8+ T cell epitopes, is highly conserved among BTV serotypes, and has therefore become a major tool in the development of a universal BTV vaccine. In this work, we have engineered multiserotype BTV vaccine candidates based on recombinant chimpanzee adenovirus (ChAdOx1) and modified vaccinia virus Ankara (MVA) vectors expressing the NS1 protein of BTV-4 or its truncated form NS1-Nt. A single dose of ChAdOx1-NS1 or ChAdOx1-NS1-Nt induced a moderate CD8+ T cell response and protected IFNAR(-/-) mice against a lethal dose of BTV-4/MOR09, a reassortant strain between BTV-1 and BTV-4, although the animals showed low viremia after infection. Furthermore, IFNAR(-/-) mice immunized with a single dose of ChAdOx1-NS1 were protected after challenge with a lethal dose of BTV-8 in absence of viremia nor clinical signs. Additionally, the heterologous prime-boost ChAdOx1/MVA expressing NS1 or NS1-Nt elicited a robust NS1 specific CD8+ T cell response and protected the animals against BTV-4/MOR09 even 16 weeks after immunization, with undetectable levels of viremia at any time after challenge. Subsequently, the best immunization strategy based on ChAdOx1/MVA-NS1 was assayed in sheep. Non-immunized animals presented fever and viremia levels up to 104 PFU/mL after infection. In contrast, although viremia was detected in immunized sheep, the level of virus in blood was 100 times lower than in non-immunized animals in absence of clinical signs.

Degradation of free tryptophan in a cookie model system and its application in commercial samples.

The stability of free tryptophan (Trp) was examined in five cookie-resembling models at varying baking temperatures and durations. Trp was measured by HPLC coupled with a fluorescent detector. Trp degradation was significantly greater in cookies formulated with glucose compared with sucrose, regardless of the temperatures and durations of baking. A lag period was clearly observed in cookies formulated with sucrose. The type of sugar used in the dough formulation affected not only the thermal destruction kinetics but also the degree of degradation of free Trp. However, the type of leavening agent (ammonium bicarbonate versus sodium bicarbonate) did not affect the rate of Trp destruction as happens in Maillard-driven reactions. In addition, the free Trp content was analyzed in nine different flours and sixty-two commercial cookies, and it was found that free Trp varied from 0.4 to 1287.9 mg/kg for rice and wheat bran, respectively. It was found that free Trp was significantly higher in dietetic commercial samples formulated with wheat bran compared with other flours.