Accipiter hawks (Accipitridae) confirmed as definitive hosts of Sarcocystis turdusi, Sarcocystis cornixi and Sarcocystis sp. ex Phalacrocorax carbo.

Sarcocystis is a large genus of protozoan parasites with complex heteroxenous life cycles. For many species, either the intermediate or the definitive host is still unknown. In this study, 116 Accipiter hawks (Eurasian sparrowhawks and northern goshawks) were investigated for the presence of Sarcocystis spp. in their intestinal tract or their faeces. To gain a wide distribution, samples were collected throughout Germany within 2 years. It was possible to detect Sarcocystis-like oocysts in 65 samples. Sequencing of the ITS region or species-specific PCR identified 33 samples as Sarcocystis turdusi/Sarcocystis sp. ex A. nisus (18), Sarcocystis calchasi (6), Sarcocystis columbae (3), Sarcocystis cornixi (3) and Sarcocystis sp. ex Phalacrocorax carbo (3). Besides the known infestation with S. columbae, S. sp. ex A. nisus and S. calchasi the Accipiter hawks were thereby confirmed as definitive host of S. turdusi, S. cornixi and S. sp. ex Phalacrocorax carbo for the first time.

DNA vaccines encoding the envelope protein of West Nile virus lineages 1 or 2 administered intramuscularly, via electroporation and with recombinant virus protein induce partial protection in large falcons (Falco spp.).

As West Nile virus (WNV) can cause lethal diseases in raptors, a vaccination prophylaxis of free-living and captive populations is desirable. In the absence of vaccines approved for birds, equine vaccines have been used in falcons, but full protection against WNV infection was not achieved. Therefore, two DNA vaccines encoding the ectodomain of the envelope protein of WNV lineages 1 and 2, respectively, were evaluated in 28 large falcons. Four different vaccination protocols were used, including electroporation and booster-injections of recombinant WNV domain III protein, before challenge with the live WNV lineage 1 strain NY99. Drug safety, plasmid shedding and antibody production were monitored during the vaccination period. Serological, virological, histological, immunohistochemical and molecular biological investigations were performed during the challenge trials. Antibody response following vaccination was low overall and lasted for a maximum of three weeks. Plasmid shedding was not detected at any time. Viremia, mortality and levels, but not duration, of oral virus shedding were reduced in all of the groups during the challenge trial compared to the non-vaccinated control group. Likewise, clinical scoring, levels of cloacal virus shedding and viral load in organs were significantly reduced in three vaccination groups. Histopathological findings associated with WNV infections (meningo-encephalitis, myocarditis, and arteritis) were present in all groups, but immunohistochemical detection of the viral antigen was reduced. In conclusion, the vaccines can be used safely in falcons to reduce mortality and clinical signs and to lower the risk of virus transmission due to decreased levels of virus shedding and viremia, but full protection was not achieved in all groups.

Parasite distribution and early-stage encephalitis in Sarcocystis calchasi infections in domestic pigeons (Columba livia f. domestica).

Pigeon protozoal encephalitis is a biphasic, neurologic disease of domestic pigeons (Columba livia f. domestica) caused by the apicomplexan parasite Sarcocystis calchasi. Despite severe inflammatory lesions of the brain, associated parasitic stages have only rarely been identified and the cause of the lesions is still unclear. The aim of this study was therefore to characterize the tissue distribution of S. calchasi within pigeons between the two clinical phases and during the occurrence of neurological signs. For this purpose, a semi-quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was developed. Forty-five domestic pigeons were infected orally (via a cannula into the crop) with 200 S. calchasi sporocysts and euthanized in groups of three pigeons at intervals of 2 to 10 days over a period of 61 days. Tissue samples including brain and skeletal muscle were examined by histology, immunohistochemistry, and PCR. Schizonts were detected in the liver of one pigeon at day 10 post infection. A mild encephalitis was detected at day 20 post infection, around 4 weeks before the onset of neurological signs. At the same time, immature sarcocysts were present in the skeletal muscle. In seven pigeons a few sarcocysts were identified in the brain, but not associated with any lesion. These results suggest that the encephalitis is induced at a very early stage of the S. calchasi lifecycle rather than in the chronic phase of pigeon protozoal encephalitis. Despite the increasing severity of lesions in the central nervous system, the amount of sarcocysts did not increase. This supports the hypothesis of a delayed-type hypersensitivity response as the cause of the encephalitis. The study also demonstrated that S. calchasi DNA is detectable in tissues negative by histological methods, indicating a higher sensitivity of the real-time PCR.

Toltrazuril does not show an effect against pigeon protozoal encephalitis.

The protozoan parasite Sarcocystis calchasi causes a severe neurologic disease in domestic pigeons (Columba livia f. dom.) named pigeon protozoal encephalitis. Recently, the parasite has also been reported in psittacines causing a virtually identical disease with fatal outcome. So far, an etiological treatment of S. calchasi infections in pigeons or psittacines is unknown. The present study evaluates the effectiveness of the anticoccidian drug toltrazuril against S. calchasi and the influence of the timepoint of treatment. Therefore, nine domestic pigeons were inoculated with 400 S. calchasi sporocysts and treated with toltrazuril (25 mg/kg) in groups of three pigeons each at dpi 10/11 and dpi 40/41 and on two consecutive days at the onset of neurologic signs. After euthanasia at dpi 73, tissue samples including brain and skeletal muscles were examined by histology and S. calchasi-specific real-time PCR. All pigeons independent of the group developed neurologic signs from dpi 49 onwards. Histology identified sarcocysts in the skeletal muscles and a granulomatous encephalitis in the brains. The relative amount of S. calchasi DNA was on a comparable level in all pigeons. Consequently, toltrazuril was demonstrated to be not effective against S. calchasi with the applied treatment regime. Longer treatment periods or agents other the toltrazuril may be considered for further investigations. So far, preventive measures like roofing of aviaries for prevention of infection and regular disinfection remain the most important factor in the control of S. calchasi infections.

Vertebral Osteomyelitis and Septic Arthritis Associated With Staphylococcus hyicus in a Juvenile Peregrine Falcon ( Falco peregrinus ).

A 6-week-old, parent-reared peregrine falcon ( Falco peregrinus ) was presented with spastic hypertonus of its hind limbs of unknown origin and duration. Radiologic examination revealed smooth periosteal reactions ventrally at thoracic vertebrae 5 to 7. Contrast-enhanced computed tomography identified the swelling as inflammation; antibiotic, antimycotic, anti-inflammatory, and analgesic treatments were initiated, and vitamins and minerals were supplemented. Because the bird's condition did not improve after 10 days, it was euthanatized and submitted for postmortem examination. On histopathologic examination, chronic, active osteomyelitis was diagnosed in thoracic vertebrae 5 to 7, and chronic, active arthritis was present in both the right shoulder and left elbow joints. Staphylococcus hyicus was isolated from these 3 locations, as well as from lungs and liver, indicating a chronic septic staphylococcosis. Although infections with Staphylococcus species are occasional causes of vertebral osteomyelitis in juvenile poultry with active growth plates, it is only sporadically reported in raptors and companion birds. This case report is the first description of the clinical features and diagnostic and pathologic findings in a juvenile peregrine falcon with hematogenous osteomyelitis and arthritis associated with septicemia caused by S hyicus.

Double-blind, randomized, intraindividual comparison study of the efficacy of prilocaine and lidocaine in tumescent local anesthesia.

BACKGROUND: Tumescent local anesthesia (TLA) with lidocaine or prilocaine solutions is widely used in dermatology. OBJECTIVE: Comparison of efficacy and safety of lidocaine and prilocaine in liposuctions with TLA. METHODS: TLA was performed using defined dilutions of lidocaine or prilocaine. Half-side comparisons were applied on 26 patients undergoing symmetric liposuction. Pain reduction (overall sensation and pain at lancet prick) and tolerance were assessed before, during and 2-24 h after liposuction. RESULTS: No differences in overall pain sensation between the substances were detected during and after liposuction except a more rapid onset with lidocaine (less pain after 15 min, p < 0.043). Local tolerance of both substances was excellent. CONCLUSION: Lidocaine and prilocaine used in TLA for liposuction show good efficacy and tolerance. A fixed combination of lidocaine and prilocaine may reduce the risk of side effects when great quantities of TLA are needed.

Sarcocystis calchasi has an expanded host range and induces neurological disease in cockatiels (Nymphicus hollandicus) and North American rock pigeons (Columbia livia f. dom.).

Pigeon protozoal encephalitis (PPE) is an emerging central nervous system disease of pigeons (Columba livia f. domestica) caused by the apicomplexan parasite Sarcocystis calchasi. The intermediate host specificity of S. calchasi had been considered high, as domestic chickens were resistant to experimental infection. Here, we have re-evaluated this concept and expanded the known host range of S. calchasi by experimental infection of cockatiels (Nymphicus hollandicus), a species distantly related to pigeons. In this work, a group of eight cockatiels were experimentally infected with S. calchasi, which resulted in a biphasic central nervous system disease that paralleled PPE in many aspects, albeit with a more diverse pathology. All cockatiels became lethargic and polyuric between days 7 and 13 pi and during that time schizonts of S. calchasi were found primarily in the liver and spleen accompanied by necrosis and inflammation. As with pigeons, neurological signs occurred during a chronic phase of the disease in three cockatiels between 57 and 63 dpi. However, all five cockatiels necropsied in that period, or at the end of the trial at 76 dpi, had a severe lymphohistiocytic and necrotizing encephalitis. No tissue cysts were found in the heart, and cockatiels infected with 10(5) sporocysts only had a negligible parasite load in skeletal muscles despite the presence of severe central nervous system lesions. Notably, intralesional schizonts were identified in the brain of one cockatiel. In contrast to previous results, intralesional schizonts were also identified in the brains of three of six naturally infected pigeons from Minnesota and Missouri examined as part of an epidemiological investigation. In both the cockatiel and the pigeons, tissue cysts were found concurrently with schizonts suggesting an uncommon phenomenon in the Sarcocystis life cycle. Based on the results of this study, transmission of S. calchasi to avian species other than the domestic pigeon is possible. These findings suggest a, so far, unmonitored prevalence of S. calchasi in avian populations and highlight a possible ongoing dissemination of this parasite in the Northern Hemisphere.

Local anesthetic effects of Lidocaine cream: randomized controlled trial using a standardized prick pain.

BACKGROUND: ELA-max (4% lidocaine) and EMLA cream (lidocaine-prilocaine 2.5%) are topicals used for superficial anesthesia. Only few studies have been published on their comparative effectiveness in close-to-practice pain models. OBJECTIVE: (1) To evaluate the analgesic efficacy of lidocaine cream compared with lidocaine-prilocaine cream and placebo. (2) To assess the safety and tolerability. METHODS: Randomized, three-arm, double-blind trial in 40 healthy volunteers comparing the anesthetic effects of Lidocaine and lidocaine-prilocaine cream to placebo at various time points (0-120 min). A standardized pain was induced by lancet pricks and measured by a visual analogue scale. Intra-individual comparison between the test areas was performed in a cross-over design. RESULTS: Lidocaine showed significantly reduced pain compared to placebo at all assessment points. Pain reduction was achieved significantly earlier using lidocaine occlusively (30 min). No significant differences were found concerning the anesthetic efficacy of lidocaine and lidocaine-prilocaine cream. There were no relevant adverse events. CONCLUSION: This study confirms that a topical preparation with 4% lidocaine is an effective and safe treatment option for superficial anesthesia. It supports the claim that an occlusive application is more rapid in action. 4% lidocaine is of value as a rapidly-acting local anesthetic for the treatment of minor surgical procedures.