Exploration of a Marital Typology: Implications for Marital Functioning in a Multi-Ethnic Sample.

Marital conflict is associated with multiple negative outcomes for couples, including marital dissatisfaction and divorce. Little research, however, has examined conflict in Hispanic/Latino couples or its association with marital satisfaction, which creates an unfortunate knowledge gap for clinicians working with diverse client groups. The present study sought to examine both marital conflict and satisfaction using a sample of 231 European American (EA; n = 108) and Hispanic/Latino (H/L; n = 123) couples. Through observational coding, couples were placed into four groups based on their type of conflict management strategies: Harmonious, Withdrawn, Conflictual-Expressive, or Conflictual-Hostile. For both ethnic groups, couples in the Harmonious group were nondistressed and couples in the Conflictual-Hostile group were in the distressed range of marital satisfaction. Cross-ethnic differences emerged. EA couples experienced distress when both hostile (Conflictual-Hostile) and nonhostile conflict (Conflictual-Expressive) communication types were observed, while only hostile conflict was associated with distress for the H/L group. H/L couples reported similar levels of satisfaction in both the Harmonious and Conflictual-Expressive groups. H/L couples also fell within the distressed range when withdrawn communication patterns were observed; however, this was not the case for EA couples. These differences suggest that both types of conflict are associated with marital distress for EA couples, whereas hostile conflict and withdrawn behavior appear to be more negatively associated with marital satisfaction in H/L couples. Results provide support for the use of an observational coding system with H/L and EA couples and also suggest the importance of understanding how differences in expressions of conflict across ethnicities may relate to marital satisfaction.

El conflicto conyugal está asociado con numerosos resultados negativos para las parejas, incluida la insatisfacción conyugal y el divorcio. Sin embargo, pocas investigaciones han analizado el conflicto en las parejas hispanas/latinas o su asociación con la satisfacción conyugal, lo cual crea una desafortunada laguna de conocimiento para los profesionales que trabajan con grupos de pacientes diversos. El presente estudio tuvo como finalidad analizar tanto el conflicto como la satisfacción conyugal utilizando una muestra de 231 parejas euroamericanas (EA; n = 108) e hispanas/latinas (H/L; n = 123). Mediante la codificación observacional, se colocó a las parejas en cuatro grupos según su tipo de estrategias de gestión de conflictos: armonioso, retraído, conflictivo-expresivo o conflictivo-hostil. En ambos grupos étnicos, las parejas del grupo armonioso eran parejas sin distrés y las parejas del grupo conflictivo-hostil estaban en el rango de distrés en la satisfacción conyugal. Surgieron diferencias interétnicas. Las parejas EA sufrieron distrés cuando se observaron los tipos de comunicación ante el conflicto hostil (conflictivo-hostil) y no hostil (conflictivo-expresivo), mientras que solo el conflicto hostil estuvo asociado con el distrés para el grupo H/L. Las parejas H/L informaron niveles similares de satisfacción tanto en el grupo armonioso como en el conflictivo-expresivo. Las parejas H/L también quedaron dentro del rango con distrés cuando se observaron patrones de comunicación retraídos; sin embargo, esto no fue así para las parejas EA. Estas diferencias sugieren que ambos tipos de conflicto están asociados con el distrés conyugal para las parejas EA, mientras que el conflicto hostil y el comportamiento retraído parecen estar más negativamente asociados con la satisfacción conyugal en las parejas H/L. Los resultados respaldan el uso de un sistema de codificación observacional con parejas H/L y EA, y también sugieren la importancia de comprender cómo las diferencias en las expresiones de conflicto entre las etnias pueden relacionarse con la satisfacción conyugal.

Identity profiles in lesbian, gay, and bisexual youth: the role of family influences.

Sexual identity development is a central task of adolescence and young adulthood and can be especially challenging for sexual minority youth. Recent research has moved from a stage model of identity development in lesbian, gay, and bisexual (LGB) youth to examining identity in a non-linear, multidimensional manner. In addition, although families have been identified as important to youth's identity development, limited research has examined the influence of parental responses to youth's disclosure of their LGB sexual orientation on LGB identity. The current study examined a multidimensional model of LGB identity and its links with parental support and rejection. One hundred and sixty-nine LGB adolescents and young adults (ages 14-24, 56 % male, 48 % gay, 31 % lesbian, 21 % bisexual) described themselves on dimensions of LGB identity and reported on parental rejection, sexuality-specific social support, and non-sexuality-specific social support. Using latent profile analysis (LPA), two profiles were identified, indicating that youth experience both affirmed and struggling identities. Results indicated that parental rejection and sexuality-specific social support from families were salient links to LGB identity profile classification, while non-sexuality specific social support was unrelated. Parental rejection and sexuality-specific social support may be important to target in interventions for families to foster affirmed LGB identity development in youth.

Sexuality related social support among lesbian, gay, and bisexual youth.

Lesbian, gay, and bisexual ("LGB") youth may face significant stressors related to their sexual orientation. Few studies, however, have examined youth's experiences of support for coping with these stressors. The current study compared LGB youth's perceptions of support for sexuality stress to their support for other types of problems. The links between sexuality stress, sexuality support, and emotional distress were also examined. Ninety-eight LGB youth (ages 18-21, 33% female) rated support from family, heterosexual friends, and sexual minority friends for dealing with problems related, and not related, to their sexuality. From family and heterosexual friends, support for sexuality stress was less available than support for other stressors. Sexual minority friends provided the highest levels of sexuality support. In regression analyses, higher levels of sexuality support related to decreased emotional distress and buffered against the negative effects of sexuality stress on emotional distress. Sexuality support, although less available than other types of support, may be especially relevant to mental health among LGB youth.

Parental responsiveness toward GLB children: Impact on mental health two years later.

Few studies have examined parental variables in relation to GLB youth outcomes. This study aimed to establish the reliability and validity of observational codes that examined parental acceptance, emotional support, and ambivalence, and to examine the impact of these parental variables on GLB youth internalizing and externalizing problems, substance use problem severity, and GLB negative identity. Participants included 36 GLB parent-youth dyads at baseline, and out of those, 27 completed the two year follow-up. Results provided support for the reliability and validity of the observational codes. Parental ambivalence was positively correlated to youth-report of parental rejection, but was unrelated to parents' self-reports of rejection. Additionally, parental acceptance of sexual orientation at baseline was inversely related to GLB youth externalizing symptoms two years later, and parental emotional support was inversely related to GLB youth internalizing symptoms and substance use problem severity; however, there were no associations with GLB negative identity. Parental ambivalence was not related to longitudinal outcomes. The results of this study have implications for interventions targeting GLB youth and their parents.

Exposure to domestic and community violence in a nonrisk sample: associations with child functioning.

Limited data exist on the unique, additive, and interactive effects of exposure to domestic and community violence on children's functioning, particularly in community samples. This study examined relations between children's violence exposure, at home and in the community, and symptoms of externalizing and internalizing problems. Parents reported on domestic violence in the home, and children reported on community violence. Concurrent child functioning was measured through parent and teacher reports on the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL) and child self-reports on the Children's Depression Inventory. A multi-ethnic sample of 117 children, aged 8 to 12 years, and their parents and teachers participated. Community violence was related to all measures of children's adjustment, whereas exposure to domestic violence was related only to CBCL externalizing problems. Teacher reports of child aggression were predicted by child age, community violence, and the interaction of community and domestic violence. Implications for research and clinical intervention are discussed.

Coordinated community response to family violence: the role of domestic violence service organizations.

There is increasing awareness that domestic violence (DV) and child maltreatment often overlap and that there are significant negative consequences to women and children who are victims in the same families. The present study contains data from a participatory evaluation of a multisite national demonstration project on family violence (the Greenbook Initiative), funded jointly by the U.S. Departments of Health and Human Services and Justice. The goal of this initiative was to increase community capacity to assist dually victimized families. This article focuses on the DV service organizations in the demonstration with regard to collaborations with other agencies and work within the DV system to respond to dually victimized families. Findings suggest that DV agencies participated in leadership roles, cross-system collaborations, and cross-system trainings throughout the initiative. Within-agency practice changes were less apparent. Research and policy implications are discussed.

Domestic violence and dependency courts: the Greenbook demonstration experience.

This field study reports on a cross-site evaluation of dependency courts in communities receiving federal funding to implement the Greenbook initiative, a multisite demonstration for community improvement of coordinated responses to families victimized by domestic violence and child maltreatment. This article focuses on the dependency court, where child maltreatment cases are heard, specifically court participation in collaborative activities and court practice improvements. Findings indicate that perceptions of judicial leadership varied considerably by site. Cross-training appeared to increase over time, particularly with court staff. Collaborative efforts emerged across the Greenbook initiative with regard to the courts, and some innovative practices appeared within Greenbook sites, such as separate case plans for perpetrators and victims of violence in families, reducing the likelihood of controversial failure to protect charges. Results also highlight challenges inherent in changing court practices. Research and practice implications are discussed, focusing on relevance to other communities attempting to work collaboratively with the court system.

Risk for maternal depression and child aggression in Early Head Start families: A test of ecological models.

Current literature indicates that risk for maternal depression is substantial in low-income families. A large body of research also indicates that when mothers are depressed, children are at risk for a number of developmental difficulties. While mutual influence between child and parental difficulties has been noted, few studies examine risk factors for both depression and child aggression within ecological models. The present cross-site study examined the unique and additive contributions of contextual factors, including SES and family functioning, on maternal depression and child aggression in Early Head Start families. A multiethnic sample of parents and their children, between the ages of 12 and 43 months, participated in this study. Families came from five Early Head Start programs across the United States, representing both urban and rural areas. Structural equation models (SEM) demonstrate mutual links between depression and aggression, mediated at least in part by ecological factors. SEM indicated that 36.4% of the variance in child aggression is accounted for in a model linking aggressive behavior to parent depression, stress, and couple-level functioning, as well as other family interaction variables. A second model focusing on maternal depression revealed that 44.5% of the variance in maternal depression was accounted for through family factors, including couple-related support and satisfaction and parenting stress. In this second model, child aggression was indirectly linked to maternal depression. These data have important implications for programs serving at-risk families.

The early promotion and intervention research consortium (E-PIRC): Five approaches to improving infant/toddler mental health in Early Head Start.

One planned consequence of the national Infant Mental Health Forum held in the United States in 2000 was the funding of five research projects conducted in Early Head Start (EHS) programs. Each project strengthened existing programs by integrating infant/toddler mental health approaches and testing the outcomes on infant/toddler development, behavior, and parent-child interactions. In two of the projects, the effect of offering enrichment for EHS staff was tested. The other three projects tested the effect of services offered directly to parents and children. This article describes the five projects and the theories, methods, and outcome measures used. In order to understand more fully the elevated risk factors in these families and the consequences for mental health in their infants and toddlers, a common set of measures was developed. Data have been used to explore the common threats to mental health and the factors that moderate the impact on infants and toddlers.

Examining ethnic differences in parental rejection of LGB youth sexual identity.

Upward of 70% of lesbian, gay, and bisexual (LGB) youth experience some degree of parental rejection of their sexual identity, which is problematic in light of research documenting links between parental rejection and psychological difficulties in LGB youth. Additionally, emerging research suggests that ethnic minority LGB youth may be at greater risk to experience parental rejection than ethnic majority LGB youth. However, this research is inconclusive and has significant gaps. The current study is one of the first to include a multiethnic sample of LGB youth and their parents to investigate how ethnicity may be related to parental rejection. Specifically, the current study examined ethnic differences in parental rejection as well as in intrapersonal variables (i.e., homonegativity and traditional gender role beliefs), which are thought to be related both to ethnicity and parental rejection. Additionally, indirect effects of ethnicity on parental rejection through homonegativity and traditional gender role beliefs were examined. Participants included 90 parents (ages 32-63) and their 90 LGB children (ages 15-24). Fifty-nine percent of the sample were ethnic minority. Significant ethnic differences were found in parental rejection and homonegativity, but not in traditional gender role beliefs. Homonegativity was found to fully mediate the relation between ethnicity and parental rejection. These results provide important information on why ethnic minority parents, in general, may have a more difficult time accepting their LGB children than ethnic majority parents. (PsycINFO Database Record

Marital conflict, maternal and paternal parenting, and child adjustment: a test of mediation and moderation.

Parenting was examined as a mediator of associations between marital and child adjustment, and parent gender was examined as a moderator of associations among marital, parental, and child functioning in 226 families with a school-age child (146 boys). Parenting fully mediated associations between marital conflict and child internalizing and externalizing behaviors. Parent gender did not moderate associations when data from the full sample or families with girls only were evaluated. Parent gender did moderate associations when families with boys were evaluated, with the association between marital conflict and parenting stronger for fathers than mothers. A trend suggested fathers' parenting may be more strongly related to internalizing behavior and mothers' parenting may be more strongly related to externalizing behavior in boys.

Behavioral Control Dynamics and Developmental Outcomes in Infants Prenatally Exposed to Cocaine.

This study longitudinally examined the associations between mother-infant interactions at 15 months and behavioral and cognitive outcomes at 36 months of age in a sample of at-risk, young children. Participants for the current study were 58 infants/toddlers prenatally exposed to cocaine and their maternal caregivers. These infants were from a low socioeconomic status background and were part of an intervention setting. When the children were 12, 15, and 36 months, they participated in research sessions with their maternal caregivers. Cognitive development at 12 months and maternal and infant behavior at 15 months were measured to predict behavioral and cognitive outcome at 36 months. Higher levels of maternal control at 15 months were marginally significant in predicting higher levels of problem behavior at 36 months whereas higher levels of infant resistance to control predicted lower levels of problem behavior. Furthermore, control-resistant behavior displayed by infants was a unique buffer against problem behavior, even after controlling for maternal factors and cognitive abilities. These findings suggest that maternal control attempts and infant reactions to those maternal control behaviors play an important role in the development of adaptive and maladaptive behavior patterns during early childhood.

The Role of Religion and Stress in Sexual Identity and Mental Health Among LGB Youth.

This study investigated religious stress, gay-related stress, sexual identity, and mental health outcomes in lesbian, gay and bisexual adolescents and emerging adults. The model examined negative LGB identity as a mediator of the relationships between a) religious stress and mental health, and b) gay-related stress and mental health. The data indicated that negative LGB identity fully accounted for both relationships. Findings suggest that a negative sense of sexual identity for LGB youth helps explain the links between religious and gay-related stressors and mental health. As LGB youth may have limited control over these stressors, the importance of helping LGB youth maintain a positive LGB identity, despite homonegative messages from others, is discussed.

Family boundary structures and child adjustment: the indirect role of emotional reactivity.

Structural and system theories propose that disruptions in family subsystem functioning increase risk for youth maladjustment. While there is growing evidence to support this proposition, studies that specifically focus on the larger family system remain relatively rare. Furthermore, the pathways that connect problems in family subsystem alliances to externalizing or internalizing problems in youth are as yet largely unexplored. This study examined youth emotional reactivity (anger and sadness) to family conflict as an indirect pathway of the association between family boundary disturbances and youth adjustment in a sample of two-parent families (N = 270). Observational coding was used to group families into Balanced, Dyadic, or Disengaged family alliance structures and to assess youth emotional reactivity, and parent-report was used to assess youth psychopathology. Structural equation modeling indicated both anger and sadness served as indirect pathways through which family boundary disturbances are linked with youth adjustment. In addition, gender was tested as a moderator and important gender differences were found. Specifically, boys were directly impacted by dyadic disturbances while girls were directly impacted by family disengagement. The findings help target goals for intervention and indicate that worthwhile objectives may include realigning family subsystem boundaries, changing family communication patterns, and improving affective coping skills for youth.

Marital conflict typology and children's appraisals: the moderating role of family cohesion.

Intense and frequent marital conflict is associated with greater appraisals of threat and self-blame in children, but little else is known about contextual factors that might affect appraisals. Systemic family theories propose that to understand child adaptation, it is necessary to understand the interconnected nature of family subsystem relationships. In a sample of 257 families with 8- to 12-year-old children, this study examined whether a four-level typology of marital conflict management was related to children's perceptions of marital conflict and their appraisals of perceived threat and self-blame. In addition, family cohesion was tested as a moderator of the relationship between marital conflict style and children's appraisals. Observational coding was used to group couples into Harmonious, Disengaged, Conflictual-Expressive, and Conflictual-Hostile groups. Children's report of the intensity, frequency, and degree of resolution of interparental discord corresponded well with observers' ratings. The relationship between marital conflict style and appraisals of threat and self-blame was moderated by family cohesiveness. At high levels of family cohesiveness, no group differences were found for either perceived threat or self-blame, whereas when family cohesiveness was low, threat was higher for the Harmonious and Conflictual-Hostile groups, as compared to the Conflictual-Expressive group, and self-blame was higher for both conflict groups (expressive and hostile), as compared to the Disengaged group. The results provide further evidence of interconnected nature of family subsystem relationships and the importance of distinguishing among different approaches to marital conflict management for understanding the complex and perhaps subtle but meaningful effects different family system factors have on child adaptation.

Couple power dynamics, systemic family functioning, and child adjustment: a test of a mediational model in a multiethnic sample.

Power dynamics in the marital dyad and systemic elements of whole-family functioning (cohesion, subsystem boundary formations) were examined in relation to each other and also in relation to child adjustment in a multiethnic sample of families. Support was found for a mediational model, such that family functioning was found to mediate the relationship between marital power dynamics and children's internalizing and externalizing behavior. Some support also was found for ethnicity as a moderator of the association between systemic family processes and children's adjustment. Disturbances in family cohesion and subsystem boundaries were more strongly related to internalizing symptomatology for children in European American families compared to children in Hispanic American families.