Neuropsychological and Anatomical-Functional Effects of Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation in Post-Stroke Patients with Cognitive Impairment and Aphasia: A Systematic Review.

Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) has been found to be promising in the neurorehabilitation of post-stroke patients. Aphasia and cognitive impairment (CI) are prevalent post-stroke; however, there is still a lack of consensus about the characteristics of interventions based on TMS and its neuropsychological and anatomical-functional benefits. Therefore, studies that contribute to creating TMS protocols for these neurological conditions are necessary. To analyze the evidence of the neuropsychological and anatomical-functional TMS effects in post-stroke patients with CI and aphasia and determine the characteristics of the most used TMS in research practice. The present study followed the PRISMA guidelines and included articles from PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, ScienceDirect, and EMBASE databases, published between January 2010 and March 2023. In the 15 articles reviewed, it was found that attention, memory, executive function, language comprehension, naming, and verbal fluency (semantic and phonological) are the neuropsychological domains that improved post-TMS. Moreover, TMS in aphasia and post-stroke CI contribute to greater frontal activation (in the inferior frontal gyrus, pars triangularis, and opercularis). Temporoparietal effects were also found. The observed effects occur when TMS is implemented in repetitive modality, at a frequency of 1 Hz, in sessions of 30 min, and that last more than 2 weeks in duration. The use of TMS contributes to the neurorehabilitation process in post-stroke patients with CI and aphasia. However, it is still necessary to standardize future intervention protocols based on accurate TMS characteristics.

Cognitive functions in COVID-19 survivors, approaches strategies, and impact on health systems: a qualitative systematic review.

Post-COVID syndrome has been defined as signs and symptoms that develop after an infection consistent with COVID-19 and continue for more than 12 weeks, including neurocognitive signs and symptoms that have an impact on the functioning and quality of life of middle-aged adult and older survivors. This systematic review describes the current knowledge of long-term cognitive impairments in COVID-19 survivors, approaches strategies, and their impact on public and private health services worldwide. The systematic review was conducted under the criteria and flowchart established in the PRISMA statement, considering studies from the PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science databases between 2020 and 2023. The included studies considered participants over 40 years of age, COVID-19 survivors. A total of 68 articles were included, most of which had high to excellent quality. The analysis showed the presence of heterogeneous cognitive symptoms in COVID survivors, persistent for at least 12 weeks from the onset of infection, mostly unsystematized and nonspecific approaches strategies, and a lack of methods for monitoring their effectiveness, with a significant economic and logistical impact on health systems. Specific protocols are required for the rehabilitation of persistent cognitive dysfunction in COVID-19 survivors, as well as longitudinal studies to evaluate the effectiveness of these interventions.

Executive functioning during verbal fluency tasks in bilinguals: A systematic review.

BACKGROUND: Bilingualism is widespread and being bilingual is more common than being monolingual. The lifelong practice bilinguals receive from managing two languages seems to lead to a cognitive benefit. Conversely, bilingualism seems to affect language ability negatively due to less use of each known language. AIMS: This systematic review aims to summarize the results of the studies on the effect of bilingualism on executive functioning assessed by verbal fluency tasks. The verbal fluency task is a neuropsychological measure of lexical retrieval efficiency and executive functioning. METHODS: The review was conducted according to the PRISMA statement through searches in the scientific databases PsycINFO, PsycARTICLES, MEDLINE, PubMed, Web of Science and SCOPUS. Studies included in this review had at least one bilingual and monolingual group, participants over 18 years and one verbal fluency task. Studies that considered bimodal bilingual, second language learners, trilingual or multilingual people, and clinical populations were excluded. A total of 38 studies were included in the systematic review. MAIN CONTRIBUTION: Quantitative analysis of performance did not show significant differences between monolinguals and bilinguals. Qualitative results are mixed, and no definitive conclusions can be drawn about a bilingual advantage or disadvantage in the verbal fluency tasks. CONCLUSIONS: Normative data based on the monolingual population are not appropriate to test a bilingual population. It is necessary to take precautions in using this task, especially in clinical practice. WHAT THIS PAPER ADDS: What is already known on the subject Bilingualism seems to lead to a cognitive benefit due to constantly monitoring the known languages to select the most suitable one for each interactional context and to affect language ability negatively due to less use of each known language but also to language ability negatively. What this paper adds to the existing knowledge This systematic review summarizes the results of the studies on the effect of bilingualism on executive functioning assessed by verbal fluency tasks, a neuropsychological measure of lexical retrieval efficiency and executive functioning. What are the potential or actual clinical implications of this work? Normative data based on the monolingual population are not appropriate to test a bilingual population. It is necessary to take precautions in using this task, especially in clinical practice.

[Review on the possible effects of COVID-19 pandemic on the cognitive function of older people]. / Funciones cognitivas y salud mental en personas mayores durante la pandemia por COVID-19, factores de riesgo y factores protectores: una revisión sistemática cualitativa.

Risk and protective factors for cognitive impairment and mental health in older people are widely identified. However, the impact of COVID-19 pandemic on cognitive functioning and neuropsychiatric symptoms in older people is not well known. Therefore, we carried out a systematic review on the impact of COVID-19 pandemic on cognitive functioning and mental health of older people, identifying risk and protective factors. We used the criteria and flowchart established in PRISMA statement, considering studies from PubMed, Scopus and Web of Science databases between the years 2019 and 2021. The search fetched 55 final articles, where the analysis was carried out. The evidence suggests that the Covid 19 Pandemic had a direct and indirect impact on the cognitive function, mental and physical health of older people and variables such as resilience and personality characteristics moderated the consequences of this crisis.

Assessing the three attentional networks in children from three to six years: A child-friendly version of the Attentional Network Test for Interaction.

Attention involves three functionally and neuroanatomically distinct neural networks: alerting, orienting, and executive control. This study aimed to analyze the development of attentional networks in children aged between 3 and 6 years using a child-friendly version of the Attentional Network Test for Interaction (ANTI), the ANTI-Birds. The sample included 88 children divided into four age groups: 3-year-old, 4-year-old, 5-year-old, 6-year-old children. The results of this study would seem to indicate that between 4 and 6 years, there are no significant changes in attentional networks. Instead, between 3 and 4 years of age, children significantly improve all their attentional skills.

[Reserva cognitiva y demencias: Limitaciones del efecto protector en el envejecimiento y el deterioro cognitivoLimited protective effects of cognitive reserve on the progression of cognitive impairment].

Aging constitutes a series of physical, physiological and cognitive changes, affecting independence in the activities of daily living. During this stage, neurodegenerative diseases and cognitive impairment are common. Cognitive Reserve allows to face neuropathological changes and maintain cognitive function in the presence of brain damage. However, there are cases where a high cognitive reserve fails to attenuate and delay the effects of neuropathology, allowing the progression of cognitive damage to advanced stages. The objective of this systematic review is to identify evidence where high cognitive reserve does not limit the effects of cognitive impairment. Results indicate that the protective effect of cognitive reserve occurs only in the presence of minimal cognitive impairment, but not at later stages.

Reserva cognitiva y demencias: Limitaciones del efecto protector en el envejecimiento y el deterioro cognitivoLimited protective effects of cognitive reserve on the progression of cognitive impairment.

Aging constitutes a series of physical, physiological and cognitive changes, affecting independence in the activities of daily living. During this stage, neurodegenerative diseases and cognitive impairment are common. Cognitive Reserve allows to face neuropathological changes and maintain cognitive function in the presence of brain damage. However, there are cases where a high cognitive reserve fails to attenuate and delay the effects of neuropathology, allowing the progression of cognitive damage to advanced stages. The objective of this systematic review is to identify evidence where high cognitive reserve does not limit the effects of cognitive impairment. Results indicate that the protective effect of cognitive reserve occurs only in the presence of minimal cognitive impairment, but not at later stages.

[Physical activity and cognitive reserve as protective factors for attentional functioning in older people]. / Capacidad física y reserva cognitiva como factores protectores de las funciones atencionales en adultos mayores.

BACKGROUND: Attention is considered a central control mechanism in cognitive processing systems. Attention deficits contribute to the symptomatic profile of Alzheimer's disease (AD). Physical exercise and cognitive reserve, could delay cognitive impairment and constitute a protective factor against clinical manifestations of AD. AIM: To relate the functionality of the attentional networks with physical activity and cognitive reserve. MATERIAL AND METHODS: Three groups of 20 older adults each (control, physical activity and with osteoarthritis) were studied. The Functional capacity assessment test, Cognitive Reserve Questionnaire and the Attention Networks Test - for Interactions and Vigilance or ANTI-V were applied to participants. RESULTS: Significant differences were observed in the response times of the alert, orientation and executive network, and the percentage of success in the network orientation and executive network. No differences between groups were observed for the different indicators of vigilance. CONCLUSIONS: These results confirm the benefits of physical exercise as a protective factor for attentional functioning.

Hemispheric modulations of the attentional networks.

Although several recent studies investigated the hemispheric contributions to the attentional networks using the Attention Network Test (ANT), the role of the cerebral hemispheres in modulating the interaction among them remains unclear. In this study, two lateralized versions of this test (LANT) were used to investigate theal effects on the attentional networks under different conflict conditions. One version, the LANTI-A, presented arrows as target and flankers, while the other version, the LANTI-F, had fruits as target and flankers. Data collected from forty-seven participants confirmed well-known results on the efficiency and interactions among the attentional networks. Further, a left visual field advantage was found when a target occurred in an unattended location (e.g. invalid trials), only with the LANTI-F, but not with LANTI-A. The present study adds more evidence to the hemispheric asymmetry of the orienting of attention, and further reveals patterns of interactions between the attentional networks and the visual fields across different conflicting conditions, underlying the dynamic control of attention in complex environments.

Effects of sleep loss on emotion recognition: a dissociation between face and word stimuli.

Short-term sleep deprivation, or extended wakefulness, adversely affects cognitive functions and behavior. However, scarce research has addressed the effects of sleep deprivation (SD) on emotional processing. In this study, we investigated the impact of reduced vigilance due to moderate sleep deprivation on the ability to recognize emotional expressions of faces and emotional content of words. Participants remained awake for 24 h and performed the tasks in two sessions, one in which they were not affected by sleep loss (baseline; BSL), and other affected by SD, according to a counterbalanced sequence. Tasks were carried out twice at 10:00 and 4:00 am, or at 12:00 and 6:00 am. In both tasks, participants had to respond to the emotional valence of the target stimulus: negative, positive, or neutral. The results showed that in the word task, sleep deprivation impaired recognition irrespective of the emotional valence of words. However, sleep deprivation impaired recognition of emotional face expressions mainly when they showed a neutral expression. Emotional face expressions were less affected by the sleep loss, but positive faces were more resistant than negative faces to the detrimental effect of sleep deprivation. The differential effects of sleep deprivation on recognition of the different emotional stimuli are indicative of emotional facial expressions being stronger emotional stimuli than emotional laden words. This dissociation may be attributed to the more automatic sensory encoding of emotional facial content.

Poor vigilance affects attentional orienting triggered by central uninformative gaze and arrow cues.

Behaviour and neuroimaging studies have shown that poor vigilance (PV) due to sleep deprivation (SD) negatively affects exogenously cued selective attention. In the current study, we assessed the impact of PV due to both partial SD and night-time hours on reflexive attentional orienting triggered by central un-informative eye-gaze and arrow cues. Subjective mood and interference performance in emotional Stroop task were also investigated. Twenty healthy participants performed spatial cueing tasks using central directional arrow and eye-gaze as a cue to orient attention. The target was a word written in different coloured inks. The participant's task was to identify the colour of the ink while ignoring the semantic content of the word (with negative or neutral emotional valence). The experiment took place on 2 days. On the first day, each participant performed a 10-min training session of the spatial cueing task. On the second day, half of participants performed the task once at 4:30 p.m. (BSL) and once at 6:30 a.m. (PV), whereas the other half performed the task in the reversed order. Results showed that mean reaction times on the spatial cueing tasks were worsened by PV, although gaze paradigm was more resistant to this effect as compared to the arrow paradigm. Moreover, PV negatively affects attentional orienting triggered by both central un-informative gaze and arrow cues. Finally, prolonged wakefulness affects self-reported mood but does not influence interference control in emotional Stroop task.

Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: A pilot study for symptom assessment and diagnosis in children in Chile.

Background: Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is one of the most prevalent psychiatric disorders among school-age children and is characterized by varying degrees of inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity. Diagnosis, which currently relies on the DSM-V criteria, is complex. This research proposes an integrated procedure for ADHD diagnosis in children, improving the diagnostic process and scientific research on etiopathology. Materials and methods: We conducted a clinical report on ADHD diagnosis in children (n = 92) between the ages of 8 and 13, based on the results of the application of different scales to parents of school-age children in Chile. The children were divided into two groups, those with an ADHD diagnosis (n = 44) and those without (n = 48) (24% females). Results: The results revealed statistically significant differences between groups for scales EDAH y SDQ-Cas, Conners Comprehensive Behavior Scale, Conners Parent Scale and the criteria according to the DSM-V and its dimensions, with the exception of inattention. Conclusion: The findings indicate the importance of appropriate criteria and procedures to establish a diagnosis and implement effective interventions in ADHD.

Alerting, orienting and executive control: the effects of sleep deprivation on attentional networks.

Sleep deprivation alters attentional functions like vigilance or tonic alerting (i.e., sustaining an alert state over a period of time). However, the effects of sleep loss on both orienting and executive control are still not clear, and no study has assessed whether sleep deprivation might affect the relationships among these three attentional systems. In order to investigate the efficiency of the three attentional networks--alerting, orienting and executive control--within a single task, we used the Attention Network Test (ANT). Eighteen right-handed male participants took part in the experiment, which took place on two consecutive days. On the first day, each participant performed a 20 min training session of the ANT. On the second day, participants remained awake for 24 h during which time the ANT was performed once at 5:00 p.m. and once at 4:00 a.m. Results showed an overall slowing of reaction times in the nocturnal session, indicating a strong decrease in vigilance. Furthermore, sleep deprivation did affect attentional orienting and executive control. Results are consistent with the hypothesis that the tonic component of alerting interacts with both attentional orienting and executive functions.

Assessing the Three Attentional Networks and Vigilance in the Adolescence Stages.

Attention involves three functionally and neuroanatomically distinct neural networks: alerting, orienting, and executive control. This study aimed to assess the attentional networks and vigilance in adolescents aged between 10 and 19 years using the attentional network test for interaction and vigilance (ANTI-V). One hundred and eighty-two adolescents divided into three groups (early adolescents, middle adolescents, late adolescents) participated in the study. The results indicate that after age 15, adolescents adopt a more conservative response strategy and increase the monitoring of self-errors. All the attentional networks seem to continue to develop during the age range considered in this study (10-19 y). Performance improved from early adolescence to middle adolescence and began to stabilize in late adolescence. Moreover, a low level of vigilance seems to harm alerting and orienting abilities.

Gender-Based Performance in Mathematical Facts and Calculations in Two Elementary School Samples From Chile and Spain: An Exploratory Study.

Gender differences in mathematical performance are not conclusive according to the scientific literature, although such differences are supported by international studies such as the Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS). According to TIMSS 2019, fourth-grade male students outperformed female students in Spanish-speaking countries, among others. This work approaches the study on gender difference by examining the basic calculation skills needed to handle more complex problems. Two international samples of second and third graders from Chile and Spain were selected for this exploratory study. Tests on basic mathematical knowledge (symbolic and non-symbolic magnitude comparisons, fluency, and calculation) were administered. The tests did not show significant difference or size effect between genders for mean performance, variance in the distribution of performance, or percentiles. As noted in the existing literature on this topic and reiterated by these findings, great care should be exercised when reporting on possible gender differences in mathematical performance, as these can contribute to low self-concept among female students.

Age-Related Changes in Hemispherical Specialization for Attentional Networks.

Many cognitive functions face a decline in the healthy elderly. Within the cognitive domains, both attentional processes and executive functions are impaired with aging. Attention includes three attentional networks, i.e., alerting, orienting, and executive control, showing a hemispheric lateralized pattern in adults. This lateralized pattern could play a role in modulating the efficiency of attentional networks. For these reasons, it could be relevant to analyze the age-related change of the hemispheric specialization of attentional networks. This study aims to clarify this aspect with a lateralized version of the Attentional Network Test for Interaction (ANTI)-Fruit. One hundred seventy-one participants took part in this study. They were divided in three age groups: youth (N = 57; range: 20-30); adults (N = 57; range 31-64), and elderly/older people (N = 57; range: 65-87). The results confirmed the previous outcomes on the efficiency and interactions among attentional networks. Moreover, an age-related generalized slowness was evidenced. These findings also support the hypothesis of a hemispheric asymmetry reduction in elderly/older adults.

The Impact of Bilingualism on Executive Functions in Children and Adolescents: A Systematic Review Based on the PRISMA Method.

Approximately half of the world's population is bilingual or multilingual. The bilingual advantage theory claims that the constant need to control both known languages, that are always active in the brain, to use the one suitable for each specific context improves cognitive functions and specifically executive functions. However, some authors do not agree on the bilingual effect, given the controversial results of studies on this topic. This systematic review aims to summarize the results of studies on the relationship between bilingualism and executive functions. The review was conducted according to PRISMA-statement through searches in the scientific database PsychINFO, PsycARTICLES, MEDLINE, and PUBMED. Studies included in this review had at least one bilingual and monolingual group, participants aged between 5 and 17 years, and at least one executive function measure. Studies on second language learners, multilingual people, and the clinical population were excluded. Fifty-three studies were included in the systematic review. Evidence supporting the bilingual effect seems to appear when assessing inhibition and cognitive flexibility, but to disappear when working memory is considered. The inconsistent results of the studies do not allow drawing definite conclusions on the bilingual effect. Further studies are needed; they should consider the role of some modulators (e.g., language history and context, methodological differences) on the observed results.

Arousal and Executive Alterations in Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD).

Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is the most common neurobehavioral disorder in childhood and can significantly affect a child's personal and social development and academic achievement. Taking into account the model of attentional networks proposed by Posner et al., the aim of the present study was to review the literature regarding two main explicative models of ADHD, i.e., the inhibition model and the cognitive-energetic model, by discussing behavioral and neurological evidence of both models and the limitations of each model. The review highlights evidence that favors the energetic model and points to an unstable arousal as a potential pathogenetic factor in ADHD.

An Ecological, Participatory, Integral and Contextualized Model (EPIC Model) of Family-School Connection: A Preliminary Analysis.

There are several programs that aim to strengthen the bond between families and schools that have shown a positive impact on this relationship as well as its effectiveness in improving academic and socioemotional child indicators. Most of the studies in this area come from Anglo-Saxon countries while in Latin America research is still scarce. Thus, this study aims to assess the influence of implementing an Ecological, Participatory, Integral and Contextualized Family-School Collaboration Model (EPIC) on family involvement, social-emotional development, and cognitive test outcomes in children in elementary school. Three possible hypotheses have been considered: (1) The EPIC Family-School Collaboration Model will have a positive and significant influence on the level of family involvement; (2) The EPIC Family-School Collaboration Model will have a positive and significant influence on the results of some cognitive tests; and; (3) The EPIC Family-School Collaboration Model will have a positive and significant influence on child social-emotional development. The study included 171 students who attended second and third elementary grades in schools in Chile during 2017 and fourth and fifth grades during 2019. The children were between 7 and 12 years old (M = 8.17, SD = 0.98), during 2017 and between 9 and 14 years old (M = 9.88, SD = 0.99), during 2019. The results show that the EPIC Family-School Collaboration Model has a positive and significant influence on the level of home-based involvement, memory and attention and intrapersonal skills in the first cycle of elementary education.

Influence of Family Involvement and Children's Socioemotional Development on the Learning Outcomes of Chilean Students.

There is an extensive body of evidence to support both family involvement and students' socioemotional development as key factors in the promotion of learning outcomes. However, there is insufficient evidence to establish exactly what this impact is when both factors are considered simultaneously. Therefore, the aim of this study is to analyze the influence of family involvement and socioemotional development on learning outcomes of Chilean students, identifying the structure that most correctly identifies the influence of the predictor variables (family involvement and socioemotional development) on learning outcomes. We present the following three hypotheses that consider possible basic interrelation structures: (1) The influence of family involvement on learning outcomes is mediated by students' socioemotional development (mediation hypothesis); (2) The influence of family involvement on learning outcomes is moderated by students' socioemotional development (moderation hypothesis); (3) Family involvement and students' socio emotional development directly affect learning outcomes (covariance hypothesis). The structures were evaluated by means of a structural equation model analysis. The study included 768 students who attended second and third elementary grades in Chilean schools. The children were between 7 and 11 years old (M = 8.29, SD = 0.86); 41.3% were girls and 58.7% were boys. The results show that family involvement and students' emotional development directly affect learning outcomes (CFI = 0.995, TLI = 0.993, RMSEA = 0.016). From the results, we can conclude that the data support the hypothesis that both family involvement and socioemotional development are predictors of learning outcomes, thereby rejecting that the impact of family involvement on learning outcomes is mediated or moderated by socioemotional development.