Life-Course Associations Between Smoking and Depressive Symptoms. A 30-Year Finnish Follow-up Study.

INTRODUCTION: Relatively little is known about whether the association between smoking and depressive symptoms changes with age and how the trajectories of smoking and depressive symptoms are intertwined during the life course. In this population-based study, these associations were examined from young adulthood to middle age. METHODS: Participants of a Finnish cohort study (N = 1955) were assessed at the ages of 22, 32, 42, and 52 using questionnaires covering daily smoking (yes/no) and the short 13-item Beck Depression Inventory. Longitudinal latent class and longitudinal latent profile analyses were used to identify life course trajectories of smoking and depressive symptoms. RESULTS: The proportions of daily smokers decreased, while levels of depressive symptoms increased among both females and males from age 22 to 52 years. Smoking was associated with higher levels of depressive symptoms from age 22 to 42 years, while not at 52. Associations among males prevailed when adjusting for education, marital status, and alcohol use. Four life course classes of daily smoking (nonsmokers, decreasing prevalence of smoking, persistent smokers, and increasing prevalence of smoking) and four trajectories of depressive symptoms (low, increasing/moderate, decreasing/moderate, and high) were identified. In males, persistent daily smokers (relative risk ratio (RRR) = 4.5, 95% confidence interval (CI): 2.2 to 9.2) and those in the class with increasing smoking prevalence (RRR = 3.2, 95% CI: 1.1 to 9.1) had an increased risk of belonging to the high depressive symptoms profile. In females these associations were nonsignificant. CONCLUSIONS: Compared to females, the relationship between smoking and depressive symptoms seems more robust among males during adulthood. Specifically, males smoking persistently from young adulthood to middle age have an increased risk of high depressive symptoms trajectory. IMPLICATIONS: This population-based cohort with 30 years of follow-up showed that the life course trajectories of daily smoking and depressive symptoms are associated. Persistent daily smokers and those starting late had an increased risk of belonging to the profile with constantly high levels of depressive symptoms during the life course. However, these associations were statistically significant only in males. Actions should be strengthened, especially in males, to prevent smoking initiation, to help smoking cessation, and to identify and treat depression in smokers with significant depressive symptoms.

Associations of generalized anxiety and social anxiety with perceived difficulties in school in the adolescent general population.

INTRODUCTION: Generalized anxiety disorder (GAD), marked by excessive worry, and social anxiety disorder (SAD) are among the clinically most important anxiety disorders in the adolescent population. This study aimed to explore the associations between perceived difficulties in school and heightened levels of self-reported noncomorbid and comorbid GAD and SAD symptoms. METHODS: Survey data of 37,905 Finnish upper secondary school students with a mean age of 17.33 years (SD = 0.63) were obtained from the School Health Promotion study, implemented in April and May 2015 in Finland. Exploratory factor analysis was used to determine indicators of academic and social difficulties in school. Logistic regression analysis was conducted to examine multivariate associations between anxiety symptoms and difficulties in the school. The anxiety symptom thresholds were based on the seven-item Generalized Anxiety Disorder Scale (≥10 points) for GAD-related symptoms and the Mini-SPIN (≥6 points) for SAD-related symptoms. RESULTS: Self-reported generalized anxiety and social anxiety were both significantly associated with various perceived difficulties in school among this adolescent general population sample. Noncomorbid and comorbid GAD and SAD symptoms were both associated with an increased risk of academic and social difficulties, even when controlling for school performance. Comorbid symptoms were associated with significantly higher rates of social difficulties than noncomorbid symptoms of GAD or SAD. Furthermore, GAD symptoms were associated with a high risk for academic difficulties, irrespective of comorbidity. CONCLUSIONS: Excessive worry, a defining feature of GAD, is central to school-related impairments among adolescents. The present study highlights the importance of school-based interventions for anxious adolescents. Interventions to improve adolescents'; school functioning should account for the interference of pathological worry related to GAD.

Comparison of adolescent referred involuntarily or voluntarily to psychiatric hospitalization.

PURPOSE OF THE STUDY: To study in an adolescent clinical inpatient population how clinical, background and psychological factors differ between adolescents referred voluntarily or involuntarily. METHODS: In this prospective cohort study, we compared adolescents (age 13-17 years, n = 206) who had been referred to psychiatric hospitalization for the first time in their life either voluntarily (n = 144) or involuntarily (n = 62). We gathered from clinical records data on the source, mode and reason for referral as well as on whether after referral the subjects were admitted to the hospital voluntarily or not, and whether they were committed to involuntary hospitalization after the observation period. Diagnostics was based on Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia for School-Age Children-Present and Lifetime Version (K-SADS-PL) interview, supplemented by information from clinical records. Structured self-reports provided information on family background, depressive symptoms, substance use, defense styles, self-image and perceived social support. RESULTS: The majority of referrals due to psychotic symptoms were involuntary, whereas self-harm was the primary reason for involuntary and voluntary referrals in comparable extent. After diagnostic evaluation, no significant difference in psychotic disorders was observed between the two groups, but anxiety disorders were more prevalent among inpatients referred voluntarily than involuntarily. Among adolescents referred involuntary, parents were more often unemployed and had mental health problems. In self-assessments, mature defense style and more positive self-image were associated with adolescents referred involuntarily compared with those referred voluntarily. CONCLUSIONS: Not only psychiatric but also psychological and social factors were associated with involuntary referral for psychiatric hospitalization in adolescents.

Life course associations between smoking and depressive symptoms. A 30-year Finnish follow-up study.

BACKGROUND: While the association between smoking and depressive symptoms has been studied quite extensively, only little is known whether the association changes and how the trajectories of smoking and depressive symptoms are intertwined during the life course. In this population-based study, we examined these associations from young adulthood to middle age. METHODS: Participants of a Finnish cohort study (N = 1955) were addressed at ages 22, 32, 42 and 52 using postal questionnaires including questions of daily smoking and depressive symptoms (the short 13-item Beck Depression Inventory). Linear and logistic regression analyses and longitudinal latent class and profile analyses were used. RESULTS: The percentages of daily smokers decreased, while levels of depressive symptoms increased among both women and men from age 22 to 52 years. Daily smoking was associated with higher levels of depressive symptoms between ages 22 and 42, while not at age 52. Associations among men prevailed also in the adjusted models. Four life course trajectories of daily smoking (non-smokers, quitters, persistent smokers, and late starters) and four depressive symptoms (low, increasing/moderate, decreasing/moderate, and high) were identified. In the adjusted models, persistent daily smokers and late starters had significantly higher risk of belonging to the high depressive symptoms profile in men, but not in women. CONCLUSIONS: Compared to women the associations between daily smoking and depressive symptoms seem more robust among men during adulthood. Especially those men smoking persistently from young adulthood to middle age have an increased risk of high depressive symptoms trajectory during the life course.

Adolescent psychiatric outpatient care rapidly switched to remote visits during the COVID-19 pandemic.

BACKGROUND: The COVID-19-pandemic and especially the physical distancing measures drastically changed the conditions for providing outpatient care in adolescent psychiatry. METHODS: We investigated the outpatient services of adolescent psychiatry in the Helsinki University Hospital (HUH) from 1/1/2015 until 12/31/2020. We retrieved data from the in-house data software on the number of visits in total and categorized as in-person or remote visits, and analysed the data on a weekly basis. We further analysed these variables grouped according to the psychiatric diagnoses coded for visits. Data on the number of patients and on referrals from other health care providers were available on a monthly basis. We investigated the data descriptively and with a time-series analysis comparing the pre-pandemic period to the period of the COVID-19 pandemic. RESULTS: The total number of visits decreased slightly at the early stage of the COVID-19 pandemic in Spring 2020. Remote visits sharply increased starting in 3/2020 and remained at a high level compared with previous years. In-person visits decreased in Spring 2020, but gradually increased afterwards. The number of patients transiently fell in Spring 2020. CONCLUSIONS: Rapid switch to remote visits in outpatient care of adolescent psychiatry made it possible to avoid a drastic drop in the number of visits despite the physical distancing measures during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Factors contributing to psychological distress in the working population, with a special reference to gender difference.

BACKGROUND: Psychological distress refers to non-specific symptoms of stress, anxiety and depression, and it is more common in women. Our aim was to investigate factors contributing to psychological distress in the working population, with a special reference to gender differences. METHODS: We used questionnaire data from the nationally representative Finnish Regional Health and Well-being Study (ATH) collected in the years 2012-2016 (target population participants aged 20 +, n = 96,668, response rate 53%), restricting the current analysis to those persons who were working full-time and under 65 of age (n = 34,468). Psychological distress was assessed using the Mental Health Inventory-5 (MHI-5) (cut-off value <=52). We studied the following factors potentially associated with psychological distress: sociodemographic factors, living alone, having children under18 years of age, lifestyle-related factors, social support, helping others outside of the home and work-related factors. We used logistic regression analysis to examine association between having work-family conflict with the likelihood for psychological distress. We first performed the models separately for men and women. Then interaction by gender was tested in the combined data for those independent variables where gender differences appeared probable in the analyses conducted separately for men and women. RESULTS: Women reported more psychological distress than men (11.0% vs. 8.8%, respectively, p < 0.0001). Loneliness, job dissatisfaction and family-work conflict were associated with the largest risk of psychological distress. Having children, active participation, being able to successfully combine work and family roles, and social support were found to be protective factors. A significant interaction with gender was found in only two variables: ignoring family due to being absorbed in one's work was associated with distress in women (OR 1.30 (95% CI 1.00-1.70), and mental strain of work in men (OR 2.71 (95% CI 1.66-4.41). CONCLUSIONS: Satisfying work, family life and being able to successfully combine the two are important sources of psychological well-being for both genders in the working population.

Detection, treatment, and course of eating disorders in Finland: A population-based study of adolescent and young adult females and males.

OBJECTIVE: We assessed the detection, treatment and outcomes of DSM-5 eating disorders in a nationwide community setting. METHOD: The FinnTwin12 cohort comprises twins born in 1983-1987 in Finland (n = 5,600), with follow-up starting at age 12. We outline treatment and outcomes of the 127 females and 15 males diagnosed with a lifetime DSM-5 eating disorder in interviews conducted for a subsample (n = 1,347) in their early 20s. RESULTS: Only 45 (32%) of those diagnosed with eating disorder in the interviews had their condition detected in healthcare, and even fewer received treatment (30% of females, 13% of males). Anorexia nervosa (AN), bulimia nervosa, and atypical AN were detected and treated more often than other eating disorders. Five years after disease onset, 41% of those diagnosed had recovered. There were no statistically significant differences in the course of different eating disorders (log-rank p = 0.66) but the outcome was more favourable among males (log-rank p = 0.008). The likelihood of 5-year recovery did not differ between those who had and who had not received treatment (41.1% vs. 40.5%, log-rank p = 0.66). CONCLUSION: Although eating disorders are common and symptoms are persistent for many, they remain under-diagnosed and under-treated. In real-world settings, effectiveness of provided treatments may be limited.

Diagnostic conversion from unipolar depression to bipolar disorder, schizophrenia, or schizoaffective disorder: A nationwide prospective 15-year register study on 43 495 inpatients.

OBJECTIVE: To examine temporal patterns and predictors for diagnostic conversion from unipolar depression (UD) to bipolar disorder (BD), schizophrenia, and schizoaffective disorder (SAD). METHODS: A prospective nationwide register-based cohort (n = 43 495) of all first psychiatric hospitalizations due to UD during 1996-2011 was followed up to 15 years. We used cumulative incidence function (CIF) analyses and the Fine-Gray subdistribution model to define the cumulative incidence of the conversions and subdistribution hazard ratios (SHRs) for predictors. RESULTS: The overall 15-year cumulative incidence of conversion was 11.1% (95% CI 10.7-11.6): 7.4% (95% CI 7.0-7.8) for BD, 2.5% (95% CI 2.3-2.7) for schizophrenia, and 1.3% (95% CI 1.1-1.4) for SAD. The highest crude incidence rate emerged during the first year. Psychotic depression predicted higher conversion risk to BD (SHR = 2.0, 95% CI 1.5-2.7), schizophrenia (SHR = 5.3, 95% CI 3.3-8.7), and SAD (SHR = 10.6, 95% CI 4.0-28.4) than mild depression. Female sex, greater overall disturbance, and comorbid personality disorder predicted conversion to BD, whereas young age and male sex to psychotic disorders. CONCLUSIONS: Among patients with first hospitalization due to UD, approximately one in nine converts to another major psychiatric disorder during 15 years, with the highest risk occurring within the first year. Patients with psychotic depression are particularly vulnerable for conversion to other major psychiatric disorders. Conversion to psychotic disorders occurs earlier than to BD. Males are at higher risk for progression to psychotic disorders, whereas females, patients with recurrent depressive episodes, severe disturbance of overall functioning, and personality disorder are at higher risk for converting to BD.

DSM-5 eating disorders among adolescents and young adults in Finland: A public health concern.

OBJECTIVE: We aimed to assess the lifetime prevalence, 10-year incidence, and peak periods of onset for eating disorders as defined by the Fifth Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5) among adolescents and young adults born in the 1980s in Finland. METHOD: Virtually all Finnish twins born in 1983-1987 (n = 5,600) were followed prospectively from the age of 12 years. A subsample of participants (n = 1,347) was interviewed using a semi-structured diagnostic interview in their early twenties. RESULTS: The prevalence of lifetime DSM-5 eating disorders was 17.9% for females and 2.4% for males (pooled across genders, 10.5%). The estimated lifetime prevalences for females and males, respectively, were 6.2 and 0.3% for anorexia nervosa (AN), 2.4 and 0.16% for bulimia nervosa (BN), 0.6 and 0.3% for binge-eating disorder (BED), 4.5 and 0.16% for other specified feeding or eating disorder (OSFED), and 4.5 and 1.6% for unspecified feeding or eating disorder (UFED). Among females, the prevalence of OSFED subcategories was as follows: atypical AN 2.1%, purging disorder 1.3%, BED of low frequency/limited duration 0.7%, and BN of low frequency/limited duration 0.4%. The 10-year incidence rate of eating disorders was 1,700 per 100,000 person-years among females (peak age of onset 16-19 years) and 220 per 100,000 person-years among males. DISCUSSION: Eating disorders are a common public health concern among youth and young adults, affecting one in six females and one in 40 males. Adequate screening efforts, prevention, and interventions are urgently needed.

Sleep symptoms and long-term outcome in adolescents with major depressive disorder: a naturalistic follow-up study.

Sleep abnormalities in major depressive disorder (MDD) have been suggested to represent a vulnerability trait, which might predispose the individual to long-term psychiatric morbidity. In this study, we sought to assess whether the presence of sleep symptoms among adolescents with MDD is associated with poorer long-term outcome in young adulthood during naturalistic follow-up. Adolescent outpatients diagnosed with MDD (n = 166; age 13-19 years, 17.5% boys) were followed up during 8 years in naturalistic settings. N = 112 adolescents (16.1% boys) completed the 8-year assessment. Sleep symptoms and psychosocial functioning were assessed with structured clinical interviews, and depressive and anxiety symptoms with questionnaires. The severity of sleep symptoms at baseline was not associated with worse outcome at 8 years in terms of any of the outcome measures tested. In particular, the presence of a disturbed sleep-wake rhythm at baseline was associated with a more favourable outcome at 8 years: less depression and anxiety symptoms and higher level of psychosocial functioning. The presence of sleep symptoms in young adulthood was associated with the presence of current depression and anxiety symptoms and poorer psychosocial functioning. The presence of sleep symptoms at follow-up seems to be state-dependent: they are observed in conjunction with other psychiatric symptoms. Contrary to our hypothesis, our results suggest that sleep complaints among adolescents with MDD do not lead to poorer long-term clinical outcome in young adulthood. The link between sleep-wake rhythm disturbance and better long-term outcome needs to be confirmed and examined in detail in further studies, but here we speculate about possible explanations.

Feasibility, Acceptability, and Preliminary Impacts of Web-Based Patient Education on Patients With Schizophrenia Spectrum Disorder: Quasi-Experimental Cluster Study.

BACKGROUND: Web-based interventions are promising tools for increasing the understanding of illness and treatment among patients with serious mental disorders. OBJECTIVE: This study aimed to test the feasibility and acceptability of a Web-based patient education intervention using a quasi-experimental cluster design to report feedback on patient education sessions and the website used and to report preliminary evidence of the intervention's impact on patients with schizophrenia spectrum disorder. METHODS: A single-blind, parallel, quasi-experimental cluster study over a 6-month period comparing Web-based education (n=33) with a nonequivalent control group (treatment as usual, n=24) for people with schizophrenia spectrum disorder was conducted. Participants (N=57) were recruited from one psychiatric hospital (6 wards). Feasibility was assessed by participants' commitment (refusal rate, dropout rate) to the study. Acceptability was assessed as participants' commitment to the intervention. Patient education sessions and website feedback were assessed by the patients and health care professionals. The preliminary impact of the sessions on patients' self-efficacy, self-esteem, illness cognition, and knowledge level was measured at baseline and follow-ups (8 weeks, 6 months) with self-rated questionnaires. RESULTS: The refusal rate among patients was high with no statistically significant difference (69% [74/107] in the intervention group, 76% [76/100] in the control group; P=.21). The same result was found for the dropout rates (48% [16/33] vs 58% [14/24]; P=.46). The acceptability of the intervention was good; 31 participants out of 33 (94%) completed all five sessions. Feedback on the intervention was mainly positive; three out of four subscales of session were rated above the midpoint of 4.0. Feedback on the website was also positive, with a grade of good for content (69%, 20/29 patients; 75%, 21/28 professionals), layout (62%, 18/29 patients; 61%, 17/28 professionals), and usability (62%, 18/29 patients; and 68%, 19/28 professionals). The patients using the intervention had significantly higher scores 6 months after the sessions in self-efficacy (baseline mean 26.12, SD 5.64 vs 6-month mean 29.24, SD 6.05; P=.003) and regarding knowledge level about schizophrenia (mean 11.39, SD 4.65 vs 6-month mean 15.06, SD 5.26; P=.002), and lower scores in the subscale of helplessness in illness cognition (mean 2.26, SD 0.96 vs 6-month mean 1.85, SD 0.59; P=.03). Differences from the control group were not significant. No differences were found in patients' self-esteem or other subscales in illness cognition. CONCLUSIONS: The patients were reluctant to participate in the study and tended to drop out before the follow-ups. Once they had participated, their acceptance of the intervention was high. A more effective recruitment strategy and monitoring method will be needed in future studies. To assess the impact of the intervention, a more rigorous study design with an adequately powered sample size will be used in cooperation with outpatient mental health services.

The Impact of a Web-Based Course Concerning Patient Education for Mental Health Care Professionals: Quasi-Experimental Study.

BACKGROUND: Continuing education has an important role in supporting the competence of health care professionals. Although Web-based education is a growing business in various health sectors, few studies have been conducted in psychiatric settings to show its suitability in demanding work environments. OBJECTIVE: We aimed to describe the impact of a Web-based educational course to increase self-efficacy, self-esteem, and team climate of health care professionals. Possible advantages and disadvantages of the Web-based course are also described. METHODS: The study used nonrandomized, pre-post intervention design in 1 psychiatric hospital (3 wards). Health care professionals (n=33) were recruited. Self-efficacy, self-esteem, and team climate were measured at 3 assessment points (baseline, 8 weeks, and 6 months). Possible advantages and disadvantages were gathered with open-ended questions at the end of the course. RESULTS: Our results of this nonrandomized, pre-post intervention study showed that health care professionals (n=33) had higher self-efficacy after the course, and the difference was statistically significant (mean 30.16, SD 3.31 vs mean 31.77, SD 3.35; P=.02). On the other hand, no differences were found in the self-esteem or team climate of the health care professionals before and after the course. Health care professionals found the Web-based course useful in supporting their work and relationships with patients. The tight schedule of the Web-based course and challenges in recruiting patients to use the patient education program with health care professionals were found to be the disadvantages. CONCLUSIONS: Web-based education might be a useful tool to improve the self-efficacy of health care professionals even in demanding work environments such as psychiatric hospitals. However, more studies with robust and sufficiently powered data are still needed.

Experiences of sexual harassment are associated with high self-esteem and social anxiety among adolescent girls.

Introduction: Subjection to sexual harassment among adolescents have been associated with negative mental health outcomes, such as depression and social anxiety. Self-esteem and social support may modify these associations. Methods: The Adolescent Mental Health Cohort 10-year replication data were used. It is a cross-sectional classroom survey involving 656 girls and 636 boys aged (mean (sd)) 15.6 (0.4) years and 15.7 (0.4) years, respectively. Subjection to sexual harassment was elicited with five questions. Depression was measured by the Beck's 13-item Depression Inventory, social anxiety by the SPIN-Fin Inventory, self-esteem by Rosenberg's Self-Esteem Scale and social support by the PSSS-R scale. The data were analysed using cross-tabulations with chi-square statistics and logistic regressions. Resutls: Among girls, social anxiety and higher self-esteem were positively associated with experiencing subjection to sexual harassment in multivariate models. No statistically significant associations were detected among boys between experiences of sexual harassment and any of the four variables. Conclusion: Experiences of being sexually harassed correlate among adolescents with high social anxiety but also with high self-esteem. Sexual harassment among adolescents may partly be explained as inept ways of showing interest, but it may nevertheless have detrimental effects on the well-being of the those subjected to it.

Perceived rather than actual overweight is associated with mental health problems in adolescence.

BACKGROUND: Overweight and perceived overweight are common among adolescents. The nature of the relationship between overweight/perceived overweight and mental health problems is still unclear. AIMS: The aim of this study was to examine whether actual overweight, perceived overweight or both are associated with internalizing and externalizing disorders among adolescents. METHODS: Data were collected by two similar school surveys in all Finnish-speaking secondary schools in Tampere (population 200,000) in the academic years 2002-2003 and 2012-2013. A total of 2775 acceptable responses were received. All the analyses were carried out separately for girls and boys. Mean age of the respondents was 15.6 years. RESULTS: In multivariate analyses perceived overweight, not actual weight, was significantly associated with higher risk of self-reported depression (OR: 4.3, 95% CI: 2.9-6.3, p < .001) and self-reported conduct disorder (OR: 2.3, 95% CI: 1.6-3.3, p < .001) in girls and with higher risk of self-reported depression (OR: 3.26, 95% CI: 1.65-6.4, p = .001) and self-reported social phobia (OR: 2.4, 95% CI: 1.0-5.6, p = .05) in boys. CONCLUSION: Perceived overweight rather than actual weight status is associated with both internalizing and externalizing mental health problems in adolescents.

Suicidal ideation, suicide attempts, and psychological distress among intoxicated adolescents in the pediatric emergency department.

BACKGROUND: Studies have emphasized screening for psychiatric disorders, especially suicide risk in emergency departments. Psychiatric disorders and experimentation with alcohol increase in adolescence and intoxications among patients challenge the staff in emergency departments. AIMS: This study examined the degree of suicidal ideation (SI) and suicidal behavior in adolescents, and the extent to which they differed from non-suicidal patients in terms of alcohol use, psychological distress, self-esteem, and perceived social support. METHODS: The study comprised 120 adolescents, a mean age of 14.2 years. Of them 60% were females. We collected data on the clinical characteristics and assessed the patient's psychiatric status using self-report scales and analyzed blood samples for alcohol. A consulting psychiatrist interviewed each patient before discharge to evaluate potential SI or suicide attempt (SA) using structured and semi-structured scales. RESULTS: Of the 120 patients 20% had SI or had made a SA. High psychological distress in girls, low blood alcohol levels (BALs), as well as low scores on self-esteem, on social support and on familial support were associated with patients with SI/SA. Logistic regression showed that the most significant variables with suicidal patients included low BAL and low self-esteem and high alcohol consumption. Psychological distress had a direct and mediational role in the suicidal patients. CONCLUSIONS: Adolescents referred to the pediatric emergency department with intoxication displaying high psychological distress and low self-esteem represent a high-risk group of teens. In this group, careful assessment of mental health status, screening for suicidal ideation, and SAs seems warranted.

Outcome of depressive and anxiety disorders among young adults: Results from the Longitudinal Finnish Health 2011 Study.

PURPOSE OF THE STUDY: We investigated the outcomes and outcome predictors of depressive and anxiety disorders in a general population sample of young adults with a lifetime history of these disorders. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The study sample was derived from a nationally representative two-stage cluster sample of Finns aged 19-34 years. The original study was carried out in 2003-2005, and the follow-up in 2011. We investigated participants diagnosed with a depressive or anxiety disorder based on a SCID interview (excluding those with only a single specific phobia) (DAX-group, N = 181). The control group included those with no DSM-IV- diagnosis (N = 290). They were followed up with the M-CIDI interview assessing 12-month depressive and anxiety disorders in 2011. RESULTS: In 2011, 22.8% of the DAX-group was diagnosed with a depressive or anxiety disorder compared to 9.8% of the control group. Education was lower and quality of life worse in the DAX-group than in the control group. Those participants of the DAX-group who received a diagnosis in 2011 had poorer quality of life than those in remission, which emphasizes the influence of a current disorder on the quality of life. Higher score in the Mood Disorder Questionnaire (MDQ) at baseline predicted poorer quality of life in 2011. CONCLUSIONS: Thus, depressive and anxiety disorders were persistent/recurrent in one quarter of participants, significantly affecting education and quality of life. Young adults with these disorders need support to achieve their academic goals.

Frontal Cortex Myo-Inositol Is Associated with Sleep and Depression in Adolescents: A Proton Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy Study.

AIM: This study used proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy (1H MRS) to evaluate the neurochemistry of the frontal cortex in adolescents with symptoms of sleep and depression. METHODS: Nineteen non-medicated adolescent boys (mean age 16.0 years; 9 clinical cases with depression/sleep symptoms and 10 healthy controls) underwent 1H MRS at 3 T. MR spectra were acquired from the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC), the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, and frontal white matter. Concentrations of N-acetyl aspartate, total creatine, choline-containing compounds, total glutamine plus glutamate, and myo-inositol (mI) were compared in the 2 subgroups, and correlated with sleep and clinical measures in the total sample. Sleep was assessed with self-report questionnaires and ambulatory polysomnography recordings. RESULTS: Concentrations of mI were lower in both frontal cortical regions among the depressed adolescents than in controls. No statistically significant differences in other metabolite concentrations were observed between the subgroups. Frontal cortex mI concentrations correlated negatively with depression severity, subjective daytime sleepiness, insomnia symptoms, and the level of anxiety, and correlated positively with total sleep time and overall psychosocial functioning. The correlations between mI in the ACC and total sleep time as well as daytime sleepiness remained statistically significant when depression severity was controlled in the analyses. CONCLUSION: Lower frontal cortex mI may indicate a disturbed second messenger system. Frontal cortical mI may thus be linked to the pathophysiology of depression and concomitant sleep symptoms among maturing adolescents. Short sleep and daytime sleepiness may be associated with frontal cortex mI independently from depression.

Stability and Change in Personality Disorder Symptoms in 1-Year Follow-up of Depressed Adolescent Outpatients.

We investigated stability and change in personality disorder (PD) symptoms and whether depression severity, comorbid clinical psychiatric disorders, and social support predict changes in personality pathology among adolescent outpatients. The 1-year outcome of PD symptoms among consecutive adolescent psychiatric outpatients with depressive disorders (N = 189) was investigated with symptom count of depression, comorbid psychiatric disorders, and perceived social support as predictors. An overall decrease in PD symptoms in most PD categories was observed. Decreases in depression severity and in number of comorbid diagnoses correlated positively with decreases in PD symptoms of most PD categories. Social support from close friends predicted a decrease in schizotypal and narcissistic, whereas support from family predicted a decrease in paranoid symptoms. Our results suggest that among depressed adolescent outpatients, PD symptoms are relatively unstable, changes co-occuring with changes/improvement in overall psychopathology. Social support seems a possibly effective point for intervention efforts regarding positive outcome of PD symptoms.

Are eating disorders and their symptoms increasing in prevalence among adolescent population?

BACKGROUND: A debate concerns whether eating disorders are increasing in prevalence. The role of socio-economic status (SES) for adolescent eating disorders (ED) is another matter of debate. AIMS: To ascertain whether self-reported eating disorders or their symptoms have increased in prevalence in adolescent population from the early 2000s to early 2010s. METHODS: A person-identifiable classroom survey, Adolescent Mental Health Cohort study, was carried out among the 9th graders in comprehensive schools in Tampere, Finland, during academic year 2002-2003, and replicated among then 9th graders during academic years 2012-2013. Eating disorders were elicited with questionnaires tailored according to DSM-IV criteria for anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa. RESULTS: No changes were observed between 2002-2003 and 2012-2013 in the prevalence of anorexia and bulimia, most of the symptoms of anorexia and bulimia, or the proportion of adolescents having received treatment due to eating disorders among the girls or the boys. Eating disorders, treatment contacts due to eating disorders, and eating disorder symptoms were not systematically associated with either low or high parental socio-economic status. CONCLUSION: Based on this dataset, eating disorders are not increasing in the adolescent population. Adolescent eating disorders are not associated with socio-economic status of their family.

Social phobia, depression and eating disorders during middle adolescence: longitudinal associations and treatment seeking.

BACKGROUND: Longitudinal associations between social phobia (SP), depression and eating disorders (EDs), and the impact of antecedent SP and depression on subsequent treatment seeking for EDs have rarely been explored in prospective adolescent population studies. AIM: We aimed to examine these associations in a large-scale follow-up study among middle adolescents. METHOD: We surveyed 3278 Finnish adolescents with a mean age of 15 years for these disorders. Two years later, 2070 were reached and again surveyed for psychopathology and treatment seeking. Longitudinal associations between the self-reported disorders and treatment-seeking patterns for self-acknowledged ED symptoms were examined in multivariate analyses, controlling for SP/depression comorbidity and relevant socioeconomic covariates. RESULTS: Self-reported anorexia nervosa (AN) at age 15 years predicted self-reported depression at age 17 years. Furthermore, self-reported SP at age 15 years predicted not seeking treatment for bulimia nervosa (BN) symptoms, while self-reported depression at age 15 years predicted not seeking treatment for AN symptoms during the follow-up period. CONCLUSIONS: Adolescents with AN should be monitored for subsequent depression. Barriers caused by SP to help seeking for BN, and by depression for AN, should be acknowledged by healthcare professionals who encounter socially anxious and depressive adolescents, especially when they present with eating problems.