Rapid reduction of maternal mortality in Uganda and Zambia through the saving mothers, giving life initiative: results of year 1 evaluation.

BACKGROUND: Achieving maternal mortality reduction as a development goal remains a major challenge in most low-resource countries. Saving Mothers, Giving Life (SMGL) is a multi-partner initiative designed to reduce maternal mortality rapidly in high mortality settings through community and facility evidence-based interventions and district-wide health systems strengthening that could reduce delays to appropriate obstetric care. METHODS: An evaluation employing multiple studies and data collection methods was used to compare baseline maternal outcomes to those during Year 1 in SMGL pilot districts in Uganda and Zambia. Studies include health facility assessments, pregnancy outcome monitoring, enhanced maternal mortality detection in facilities, and population-based investigation of community maternal deaths. Population-based evaluation used standard approaches and comparable indicators to measure outcome and impact, and to allow comparison of the SMGL implementation in unique country contexts. RESULTS: The evaluation found a 30% reduction in the population-based maternal mortality ratio (MMR) in Uganda during Year 1, from 452 to 316 per 100,000 live births. The MMR in health facilities declined by 35% in each country (from 534 to 345 in Uganda and from 310 to 202 in Zambia). The institutional delivery rate increased by 62% in Uganda and 35% in Zambia. The number of facilities providing emergency obstetric and newborn care (EmONC) rose from 10 to 25 in Uganda and from 7 to 11 in Zambia. Partial EmONC care became available in many more low and mid-level facilities. Cesarean section rates for all births increased by 23% in Uganda and 15% in Zambia. The proportion of women with childbirth complications delivered in EmONC facilities rose by 25% in Uganda and 23% in Zambia. Facility case fatality rates fell from 2.6 to 2.0% in Uganda and 3.1 to 2.0% in Zambia. CONCLUSIONS: Maternal mortality ratios fell significantly in one year in Uganda and Zambia following the introduction of the SMGL model. This model employed a comprehensive district system strengthening approach. The lessons learned from SMGL can inform policymakers and program managers in other low and middle income settings where similar approaches could be utilized to rapidly reduce preventable maternal deaths.

Findings of Phlebotomy Practices in Kenya in 2010: Need for Action.

BACKGROUND: Phlebotomy, a commonly performed medical procedure in healthcare, is essential for disease diagnosis and patient management. However, poorly performed phlebotomy can compromise patient safety, healthcare worker (HCW) safety, and specimen quality. We carried out a study between June and July 2010 to assess knowledge, quality and safety of phlebotomy before implementation of a public-private partnership between Becton, Dickinson and Company and the US President's Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief. METHODS: This was a cross-sectional observational study in 8 healthcare facilities within 4 regions of Kenya. HCWs were observed conducting venous and capillary blood collections, and pre- and posttests were offered during HCW training. RESULTS: Of 283 blood samples obtained, 194 were venous draws conducted by 72 HCWs and 89 were capillary draws performed by 33 HCWs. Based on 12 preset quality-associated criteria, none of the 194 observed phlebotomies met the standard. In total, 91 HCWs were trained in phlebotomy. The mean knowledge increase between pre- and posttraining test was 41%, ranging from 39% to 45% (95% confidence interval, 29.3%-53.5%;P< .001). CONCLUSIONS: Inadequate knowledge and imperfect phlebotomy procedures were noted. This formed the basis for the safe phlebotomy partnership to address these deficiencies. To ensure sustainability, safe phlebotomy practices were integrated into preservice training.

Improving Sampling Efficiency for Determining Pediatric HIV Prevalence in National Surveys: Evidence From 8 Sub-Saharan African Countries.

BACKGROUND: Measurement of mother-to-child HIV transmission through population-based surveys requires large sample sizes because of low HIV prevalence among children. We estimate potential improvements in sampling efficiency resulting from a targeted sample design. SETTING: Eight countries in sub-Saharan Africa with completed Population-based HIV Impact Assessment (PHIA) surveys as of 2017. METHODS: The PHIA surveys used a geographically stratified 2-stage sample design with households sampled from randomly selected census enumeration areas. Children (0-14 years of age) were eligible for HIV testing within a random subsample of households (usually 50%). Estimates of child HIV prevalence in each country were calculated using jackknife replicate weights. We compared sample sizes and precision achieved using this design with a 2-phase disproportionate sample design applied to strata defined by maternal HIV status and mortality. RESULTS: HIV prevalence among children ranged from 0.4% (95% confidence interval: 0.2 to 0.6) in Tanzania to 2.8% (95% confidence interval: 2.2 to 3.4) in Eswatini with achieved relative standard errors between 11% and 21%. The expected precision improved in the targeted design in all countries included in the analysis, with proportionate reductions in mean squared error ranging from 27% in Eswatini to 61% in Tanzania, assuming an equal sample size. CONCLUSIONS: Population-based surveys of adult HIV prevalence that also measure child HIV prevalence should consider targeted sampling of children to reduce required sample size, increase precision, and increase the number of positive children tested. The findings from the PHIA surveys can be used as baseline data for informing future sample designs.

Site factors may be more important than participant factors in explaining HIV test acceptance in the prevention of mother-to-child HIV transmission programme in Kenya, 2005.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the role of participant factors on the acceptance of a Prevention-of-Mother-to-Child (PMTCT) HIV test programme in a situation with an opt-out testing strategy. METHODS: We analysed antenatal clinic (ANC) HIV sentinel surveillance data. All 43 sites in the 2005 round of Kenya's ANC surveillance offered opt-out PMTCT services and recorded if women were offered PMTCT HIV testing and whether they accepted or refused. Logistic regression was used to determine the role of participant-level factors on PMTCT acceptance. RESULTS: During the period of sentinel surveillance, 13,026 women attended ANC and testing was offered to 12,030 women. Of those offered testing, 9690 (80.5%) accepted, with a large variation in the percent of acceptors by site. Age, residence and educational status were significant determinants of PMTCT acceptance. However, after adjusting for site none of the participant-level factors were significant determinants of PMTCT acceptance. CONCLUSIONS: Participant level factors were not significant determinants of PMTCT HIV test acceptance after adjusting for sites. PMTCT programmes should collect and evaluate the role of site-level (provider and testing service) factors on PMTCT acceptance. Improvement of site-level factors could improve PMTCT uptake.

Sustainability and Scale of the Saving Mothers, Giving Life Approach in Uganda and Zambia.

BACKGROUND: Saving Mothers, Giving Life (SMGL) significantly reduced maternal and perinatal mortality in Uganda and Zambia by using a district health systems strengthening approach to address the key delays women and newborns face in receiving quality, timely, and appropriate medical care. This article documents the transition of SMGL from pilot to scale in Uganda and Zambia and analyzes the sustainability of the approach, examining the likelihood of maintaining positive trends in maternal and newborn health in both countries. METHODS: We analyzed the potential sustainment of SMGL achievements using a tool adapted from the HIV-focused domains and elements of the U.S. President's Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief Sustainability Index and Dashboard for maternal and neonatal health pro-gramming adding a domain on community normative change. Information for each of the 5 resulting domains was drawn from SMGL and non-SMGL reports, individual stakeholder interviews, and group discussions. FINDINGS: In both Uganda and Zambia, the SMGL proof-of-concept phase catalyzed commitment to saving mothers and newborns and a renewed belief that significant change is possible. Increased leadership and accountability for maternal and newborn health, particularly at the district and facility levels, was bolstered by routine maternal death surveillance reviews that engaged a wide range of local leadership. The SMGL district-strengthening model was found to be cost-effective with cost of death averted estimated at US$177-206 per year of life gained. When further considering the ripple effect that saving a mother has on child survival and the household economy, the value of SMGL increases. Ministries of health and donor agencies have already demonstrated a willingness to pay this amount per year of life for other programs, such as HIV and AIDS. CONCLUSION: As SMGL scaled up in both Uganda and Zambia, the intentional integration of SMGL interventions into host country systems, alignment with other large-scale programs, and planned reductions in annual SMGL funding all contributed to increasing host government ownership of the interventions and set the SMGL approach on a path more likely to be sustained following the close of the initiative. Lessons from the learning districts resulted in increased efficiency in allocation of resources for maternal and newborn health, better use of strategic information, improved management capacities, and increased community engagement.

Saving Mothers, Giving Life: It Takes a System to Save a Mother.

BACKGROUND: Ending preventable maternal and newborn deaths remains a global health imperative under United Nations Sustainable Development Goal targets 3.1 and 3.2. Saving Mothers, Giving Life (SMGL) was designed in 2011 within the Global Health Initiative as a public-private partnership between the U.S. government, Merck for Mothers, Every Mother Counts, the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists, the government of Norway, and Project C.U.R.E. SMGL's initial aim was to dramatically reduce maternal mortality in low-resource, high-burden sub-Saharan African countries. SMGL used a district health systems strengthening approach combining both supply- and demand-side interventions to address the 3 key delays to accessing effective maternity care in a timely manner: delays in seeking, reaching, and receiving quality obstetric services. IMPLEMENTATION: The SMGL approach was piloted from June 2012 to December 2013 in 8 rural districts (4 each) in Uganda and Zambia with high levels of maternal deaths. Over the next 4 years, SMGL expanded to a total of 13 districts in Uganda and 18 in Zambia. SMGL built on existing host government and private maternal and child health platforms, and was aligned with and guided by Ugandan and Zambian maternal and newborn health policies and programs. A 35% reduction in the maternal mortality ratio (MMR) was achieved in SMGL-designated facilities in both countries during the first 12 months of implementation. RESULTS: Maternal health outcomes achieved after 5 years of implementation in the SMGL-designated pilot districts were substantial: a 44% reduction in both facility and districtwide MMR in Uganda, and a 38% decrease in facility and a 41% decline in districtwide MMR in Zambia. Facility deliveries increased by 47% (from 46% to 67%) in Uganda and by 44% (from 62% to 90%) in Zambia. Cesarean delivery rates also increased: by 71% in Uganda (from 5.3% to 9.0%) and by 79% in Zambia (from 2.7% to 4.8%). The average annual rate of reduction for maternal deaths in the SMGL-supported districts exceeded that found countrywide: 11.5% versus 3.5% in Uganda and 10.5% versus 2.8% in Zambia. The changes in stillbirth rates were significant (-13% in Uganda and -36% in Zambia) but those for pre-discharge neonatal mortality rates were not significant in either Uganda or Zambia. CONCLUSION: A district health systems strengthening approach to addressing the 3 delays to accessing timely, appropriate, high-quality care for pregnant women can save women's lives from preventable causes and reduce stillbirths. The approach appears not to significantly impact pre-discharge neonatal mortality.

Saving Mothers, Giving Life: It Takes a System to Save a Mother (Republication).

BACKGROUND: Ending preventable maternal and newborn deaths remains a global health imperative under United Nations Sustainable Development Goal targets 3.1 and 3.2. Saving Mothers, Giving Life (SMGL) was designed in 2011 within the Global Health Initiative as a public-private partnership between the U.S. government, Merck for Mothers, Every Mother Counts, the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists, the government of Norway, and Project C.U.R.E. SMGL's initial aim was to dramatically reduce maternal mortality in low-resource, high-burden sub-Saharan African countries. SMGL used a district health systems strengthening approach combining both supply- and demand-side interventions to address the 3 key delays to accessing effective maternity care in a timely manner: delays in seeking, reaching, and receiving quality obstetric services. IMPLEMENTATION: The SMGL approach was piloted from June 2012 to December 2013 in 8 rural districts (4 each) in Uganda and Zambia with high levels of maternal deaths. Over the next 4 years, SMGL expanded to a total of 13 districts in Uganda and 18 in Zambia. SMGL built on existing host government and private maternal and child health platforms, and was aligned with and guided by Ugandan and Zambian maternal and newborn health policies and programs. A 35% reduction in the maternal mortality ratio (MMR) was achieved in SMGL-designated facilities in both countries during the first 12 months of implementation. RESULTS: Maternal health outcomes achieved after 5 years of implementation in the SMGL-designated pilot districts were substantial: a 44% reduction in both facility and districtwide MMR in Uganda, and a 38% decrease in facility and a 41% decline in districtwide MMR in Zambia. Facility deliveries increased by 47% (from 46% to 67%) in Uganda and by 44% (from 62% to 90%) in Zambia. Cesarean delivery rates also increased: by 71% in Uganda (from 5.3% to 9.0%) and by 79% in Zambia (from 2.7% to 4.8%). The average annual rate of reduction for maternal deaths in the SMGL-supported districts exceeded that found countrywide: 11.5% versus 3.5% in Uganda and 10.5% versus 2.8% in Zambia. The changes in stillbirth rates were significant (-13% in Uganda and -36% in Zambia) but those for pre-discharge neonatal mortality rates were not significant in either Uganda or Zambia. CONCLUSION: A district health systems strengthening approach to addressing the 3 delays to accessing timely, appropriate, high-quality care for pregnant women can save women's lives from preventable causes and reduce stillbirths. The approach appears not to significantly impact pre-discharge neonatal mortality.

Addressing the Second Delay in Saving Mothers, Giving Life Districts in Uganda and Zambia: Reaching Appropriate Maternal Care in a Timely Manner.

BACKGROUND: Between June 2011 and December 2016, the Saving Mothers, Giving Life (SMGL) initiative in Uganda and Zambia implemented a comprehensive approach targeting the persistent barriers that impact a woman's decision to seek care (first delay), ability to reach care (second delay), and ability to receive adequate care (third delay). This article addresses how SMGL partners implemented strategies specifically targeting the second delay, including decreasing the distance to facilities capable of managing emergency obstetric and newborn complications, ensuring sufficient numbers of skilled birth attendants, and addressing transportation challenges. METHODS: Both quantitative and qualitative data collected by SMGL implementing partners for the purpose of monitoring and evaluation were used to document the intervention strategies and to describe the change in outputs and outcomes related to the second delay. Quantitative data sources included pregnancy outcome monitoring data in facilities, health facility assessments, and population-based surveys. Qualitative data were derived from population-level verbal autopsy narratives, programmatic reports and SMGL-related publications, and partner-specific evaluations that include focus group discussions and in-depth interviews. RESULTS: The proportion of deliveries in any health facility or hospital increased from 46% to 67% in Uganda and from 63% to 90% in Zambia between baseline and endline. Distance to health facilities was reduced by increasing the number of health facilities capable of providing basic emergency obstetric and newborn care services in both Uganda and Zambia-a 200% and 167% increase, respectively. Access to facilities improved through integrated transportation and communication services efforts. In Uganda there was a 6% increase in the number of health facilities with communication equipment and a 258% increase in facility deliveries supported by transportation vouchers. In Zambia, there was a 31% increase in health facilities with available transportation, and the renovation and construction of maternity waiting homes resulted in a 69% increase in the number of health facilities with associated maternity waiting homes. CONCLUSION: The collective SMGL strategies addressing the second delay resulted in increased access to delivery services as seen by the increase in the proportion of facility deliveries in SMGL districts, improved communication and transportation services, and an increase in the number of facilities with associated maternity waiting homes. Sustaining and improving on these efforts will need to be ongoing to continue to address the second delay in Uganda and Zambia.

Utility of antenatal HIV surveillance data to evaluate prevention of mother-to-child HIV transmission programs in resource-limited settings.

Prevention of mother-to-child human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) transmission (PMTCT) programs are expanding in resource-limited countries and are increasingly implemented in antenatal clinics (ANC) in which HIV sentinel surveillance is conducted. ANC sentinel surveillance data can be used to evaluate the first visit of a pregnant woman to PMTCT programs. We analyzed data from Kenya and Ethiopia, where information on PMTCT test acceptance was collected on the 2005 ANC sentinel surveillance forms. For Zimbabwe, we compared the 2005 ANC sentinel surveillance data to the PMTCT program data. ANC surveillance data allowed us to calculate the number of HIV-positive women not participating in the PMTCT program. The percentage of HIV-positive women missed by the PMTCT program was 17% in Kenya, 57% Ethiopia, and 59% Zimbabwe. The HIV prevalence among women participating in PMTCT differed from women who did not. ANC sentinel surveillance can be used to evaluate and improve the first encounter in PMTCT programs. Countries should collect PMTCT-related program data through ANC surveillance to strengthen the PMTCT program.

Developing a nursing database system in Kenya.

OBJECTIVE: To describe the development, initial findings, and implications of a national nursing workforce database system in Kenya. PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: Creating a national electronic nursing workforce database provides more reliable information on nurse demographics, migration patterns, and workforce capacity. Data analyses are most useful for human resources for health (HRH) planning when workforce capacity data can be linked to worksite staffing requirements. As a result of establishing this database, the Kenya Ministry of Health has improved capability to assess its nursing workforce and document important workforce trends, such as out-migration. Current data identify the United States as the leading recipient country of Kenyan nurses. The overwhelming majority of Kenyan nurses who elect to out-migrate are among Kenya's most qualified. CONCLUSIONS: The Kenya nursing database is a first step toward facilitating evidence-based decision making in HRH. This database is unique to developing countries in sub-Saharan Africa. Establishing an electronic workforce database requires long-term investment and sustained support by national and global stakeholders.

Prevention of mother-to-child transmission and voluntary counseling and testing programme data: what is their utility for HIV surveillance?

OBJECTIVE: Antenatal clinic (ANC)-based surveillance through unlinked anonymous testing (UAT) for HIV without informed consent provides solid long-term trend data in resource-constrained countries with generalized epidemics. The rapid expansion of the prevention of mother-to-child transmission (PMTCT) and voluntary counseling and testing (VCT) programmes prompts the question regarding their utility for HIV surveillance and their potential to replace UAT-based ANC surveillance. METHODS: Four presentations on the use of PMTCT or VCT data for HIV surveillance were presented at a recent international conference. The main findings are presented in this paper, and the operational and epidemiological aspects of using PMTCT or VCT data for surveillance are considered. RESULTS: VCT data in Uganda confirm the falling trend in HIV prevalence observed in ANC surveillance. Thailand, a country with nationwide PMTCT coverage and a very high acceptance of HIV testing, has replaced UAT data in favor of PMTCT data for surveillance. Studies from Botswana and Kenya showed that PMTCT-based HIV prevalences was similar, but the quality and availability of the PMTCT data varied. CONCLUSION: The strength of UAT lies in the absence of selection bias and the availability of individual data. Conversely, the quantity of VCT and PMTCT programme testing data often exceed those in UAT, but may be subject to bias due to self-selection or test refusal. When using VCT or PMTCT data for surveillance, investigators must consider these caveats, as well as their varying data quality, accessibility, and availability of individual records.

Lessons learned in the conduct, validation, and interpretation of national population based HIV surveys.

In the past few years several countries have conducted national population-based HIV surveys. Survey methods, levels of participation bias from absence or refusal and lessons learned conducting such surveys are compared in four national population surveys: Mali, Kenya, Peru and Zambia. In Mali, Zambia, and Kenya, HIV testing of adult women and men was included in the national-level demographic and health surveys carried out regularly in these countries, whereas in Peru the national HIV survey targeted young people in 24 cities with populations over 50 000.The household response rate was above 90% in all countries, but some individuals were absent for interviews. HIV testing rates were between 70 and 79% of those eligible, with higher test rates for women. Three critical questions in this type of survey need to be answered: who did the surveys miss; how much it matters that they were missed; and what can be done to increase the participation of respondents so the coverage rates are adequate. The level of representativeness of the populations tested was adequate in each survey to provide a reliable national estimate of HIV prevalence that complements other methods of HIV surveillance. Different lessons were learned from each survey. These population-based HIV seroprevalence surveys demonstrate that reliable and useful results can be obtained, although they require careful planning and increased financial and human resource investment to maximize responses at the household and individual level, which are key elements to validate survey results.This review was initiated through an international meeting on 'New strategies for HIV/AIDS Surveillance in Resource-constrained Countries' held in Addis Ababa on 26-30 January 2004 to share and develop recommendations to guide future surveys.

Phase I/II trial of HIV-1 hyperimmune globulin for the prevention of HIV-1 vertical transmission in Uganda.

OBJECTIVES: To assess the safety, tolerance, pharmacokinetics, and virologic and immunologic changes associated with the use of Ugandan HIV hyperimmune globulin (HIVIGLOB) in HIV infected pregnant Ugandan women and their infants. DESIGN: A prospective, phase I/II, three-arm dose escalation trial of HIVIGLOB. METHODS: HIVIGLOB was prepared from discarded HIV infected units of blood collected from the National Blood Bank in Kampala. From June 1996 to April 1997, 31 HIV positive pregnant women were enrolled with HIVIGLOB infusions given at 37 weeks gestation and within 16 h of birth for infants. The first 10 mother-infant pairs were infused at a dose of 50 mg/kg, followed by 11 pairs at 200 mg/kg, and 10 pairs at 400 mg/kg. Study participants were followed for 30 months. RESULTS: Thirty-one women and 29 infants were infused with HIVIGLOB. The infusions were safe and well tolerated by the women and their infants at all doses. There were no significant changes in virologic or immunologic parameters after HIVIGLOB infusion. Pharmacokinetic properties of this product were similar to other immune globulin products with a median half-life of 28 days in women and 30 days in infants. CONCLUSION: An HIV immune globulin product derived from HIV infected Ugandan donors is safe, well tolerated, and has pharmacokinetic properties consistent with other immunoglobulin products. Data suggest that a 400 mg/kg dose of HIVIGLOB would be the most appropriate dose for a subsequent efficacy trial of HIVIGLOB for the prevention of mother to child HIV transmission.

Care seeking behaviour and treatment of febrile illness in children aged less than five years: a household survey in Blantyre District, Malawi.

Malaria is a leading cause of death in children aged < 5 years in Malawi. As part of the Roll Back Malaria initiative, African heads of state have pledged that by 2005, 60% of children will receive an effective antimalarial drug within 24 h of developing fever. In 1993, Malawi switched from chloroquine to sulfadoxine-pyrimethamine (SP) in its recommendations of home treatment of febrile illness in children. To study care seeking behaviour and home treatment in Blantyre District, and provide valuable follow-up to the chloroquine to SP transition, we performed a 2-stage cluster-sample survey in February 2000. Our sample of 1080 households included 672 households with children aged < 5 years; 292 (32.2%, 95% CI 28.7-35.8%) of the 912 children in these households had completed a febrile episode within the past 14 d. Among recently febrile children, 210 (72.0%, 95% CI 67.0-77.1%) received medication at home during their illness, but only 36 (12.2%, 95% CI 8.4-16.0%) received an appropriate antimalarial drug. Overall, 111 (37.4%, 95% CI 30.9-43.9%) received prompt, appropriate treatment. Only rural location was statistically associated with failure to receive prompt appropriate treatment (risk ratio estimate 1.2, 95% CI 1.01-1.5). A greater effort to improve the quality of malaria home treatment or to expand health facility utilization will be necessary to achieve Roll Back Malaria goals before 2005 in Blantyre District. Current care seeking practices suggest interventions should stress promptness of health facility visits, improved access to appropriate drugs, and accurate dosing for home-based treatments.

Comparison of HIV-1 detection in plasma specimens and dried blood spots using the Roche COBAS Ampliscreen HIV-1 test in Kisumu, Kenya.

The World Health Organization recommends screening donor blood for HIV in centralized laboratories. This recommendation contributes to quality, but presents specimen transport challenges for resource-limited settings which may be relieved by using dried blood spots (DBS). In sub-Saharan Africa, most countries screen donor blood with serologic assays only. Interest in window period reduction has led blood services to consider adding HIV nucleic acid testing (NAT). The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) mandates that HIV-1 NAT blood screening assays have a 95% detection limit at or below 100 copies/ml and 5000 copies/ml for pooled and individual donations, respectively. The Roche COBAS Ampliscreen HIV-1 test, version 1.5, used for screening whole blood or components for transfusion, has not been tested with DBS. We compared COBAS Ampliscreen HIV-1 RNA detection limits in DBS and plasma. An AIDS Clinical Trials Group, Viral Quality Assurance laboratory HIV-1 standard with a known viral load was used to create paired plasma and DBS standard nine member dilution series. Each was tested in 24 replicates with the COBAS Ampliscreen. A probit analysis was conducted to calculate 95% detection limits for plasma and DBS, which were 23.8 copies/ml (95% CI 15.1-51.0) for plasma and 106.7 copies/ml (95% CI 73.8-207.9) for DBS. The COBAS Ampliscreen detection threshold with DBS suggests acceptability for individual donations, but optimization may be required for pooled specimens.

Unsafe sex among HIV-infected adults in Kenya: results of a nationally representative survey.

OBJECTIVE: Assess factors associated with knowledge of HIV status, sexual activity, and unprotected sex with a partner of unknown or negative HIV status (unsafe sex) among HIV-infected adults in Kenya. DESIGN: Nationally representative Kenya AIDS Indicator Survey among adults aged 15-64 years in 2007. METHODS: A standardized questionnaire was administered and blood samples tested for HIV. We assessed factors associated with knowledge of HIV infection, sexual activity, and unsafe sex. Analyses took into account stratification and clustering in the survey design and estimates were weighted to account for sampling probability. RESULTS: Of 15,853 participants with blood samples, 1104 (6.9%) were HIV infected. Of these, 83.8% did not know their HIV status (56% had never tested; 27.8% reported their last HIV test was negative), and 80.4% were sexually active. Of 861 sexually active adults, 76.9% reported unsafe sex in the past year. Adults who did not know their HIV status were more likely to be sexually active [never tested adjusted odds ratio (AOR): 5.5, 95% confidence interval (CI): 2.8 to 10.7; ever tested, incorrect knowledge AOR: 6.5, CI: 2.1 to 19.6) and to report unsafe sex (never tested AOR: 51.7, CI: 27.3 to 97.6; ever tested, incorrect knowledge of status AOR: 18.6, CI: 8.6 to 40.5) than those who knew their status. CONCLUSIONS: The majority of adults did not know they were infected and engaged in unsafe sex. Adults who knew their HIV status were less likely to be sexually active and report unsafe sex compared with those unaware of their infection. HIV prevention interventions that target HIV-infected adults are urgently needed.

Correlates of HIV Infection Among Sexually Active Adults in Kenya: A National Population-Based Survey.

OBJECTIVE: To identify factors associated with prevalent HIV in a national HIV survey in Kenya. METHODS: The Kenya AIDS Indicator Survey was a nationally representative population-based sero-survey that examined demographic and behavioral factors and serologic testing for HIV, HSV-2 and syphilis in adults aged 15-64 years. We analyzed questionnaire and blood testing data to identify significant correlates of HIV infection among sexually active adults. RESULTS: Of 10,957 eligible women and 8,883 men, we interviewed 10,239 (93%) women and 7,731 (87%) men. We collected blood specimens from 9,049 women and 6,804 men of which 6,447 women and 5,112 men were sexually active during the 12 months prior to the survey. HIV prevalence among sexually active adults was 7.4%. Factors independently associated with HIV among women were region (Nyanza vs Nairobi: adjusted OR [AOR] 1.6, 95%CI 1.1-2.3), number of lifetime sex partners (6-9 vs 0-1 partners: AOR 3.0, 95%CI 1.6-5.9), HSV-2 (AOR 6.5, 95%CI 4.9-8.8), marital status (widowed vs never married: AOR 2.7, 95%CI 1.5-4.8) and consistent condom use with last sex partner (AOR 2.3, 95%CI 1.6-3.4). Among men, correlates of HIV infection were 30-to-39-year-old age group (AOR 5.2, 95%CI 2.6-10.5), number of lifetime sex partners (10+ vs 0-1 partners, AOR 3.5, 95%CI 1.4-9.0), HSV-2 (AOR 4.7, 95%CI 3.2-6.8), syphilis (AOR 2.4, 95%CI 1.4-4.0), consistent condom use with last sex partner (AOR 2.1, 95% CI 1.5-3.1) and lack of circumcision (AOR 4.0, 95%CI 2.8 - 5.5). CONCLUSION: Kenya's heterogeneous epidemic will require regional and gender-specific prevention approaches.

Evaluating the BED capture enzyme immunoassay to estimate HIV incidence among adults in three countries in sub-Saharan Africa.

Serological assays for estimating HIV-1 incidence are prone to misclassification, limiting the accuracy of the incidence estimate. Adjustment factors have been developed and recommended for estimating assay-based HIV-1 incidence in cross-sectional settings. We evaluated the performance of the recommended adjustment factors for estimating incidence in national HIV surveys in three countries in sub-Saharan Africa. The BED-capture enzyme immunoassay was applied to stored blood specimens from (1) pregnant women aged 15-49 years attending antenatal clinics in Côte d'Ivoire (1998-2004), (2) adults aged 15-49 years participating in a demographic health survey in Kenya (2003), and (3) adults aged 15-49 years participating in a national household serosurvey in South Africa (2005). Assay-derived incidence estimates were corrected for misclassification using recommended adjustment factors and, where possible, were compared to mathematically modeled incidence in the same populations. Trends in HIV prevalence were compared to trends in assay-derived incidence to assess plausibility in the assay-derived trends. Unadjusted incidence was 3.8% [95% confidence interval (CI) 3.3-4.5] in Côte d'Ivoire, 3.5% (2.7-4.3) in Kenya, and 4.4% (CI 2.3-6.5]) in South Africa. Adjusted incidence was 2.9% (CI 2.1-3.7) in Côte d'Ivoire, 2.6% (CI 2.0-3.2) in Kenya, and 2.4% (CI 1.7-3.1) in South Africa. After adjustment, peak incidence shifted from older to younger age groups in Côte d'Ivoire and South Africa. Modeled HIV incidence was 1.0% (CI 1.02-1.08) in Kenya and 2.0% (CI 1.7-2.4) in South Africa. After applying the recommended adjustments factors, adjusted assay-derived estimates remained implausibly high in two of three populations evaluated. For more accurate measures of assay-derived population incidence, adjustment factors must be locally derived and validated. Until improved assays are available, caution should be applied in the use and interpretation of data from incidence assays.

Knowledge of HIV status, sexual risk behaviors and contraceptive need among people living with HIV in Kenya and Malawi.

BACKGROUND: Several studies support the need for effective interventions to reduce HIV transmission risk behaviors among people living with HIV/AIDS (PLWHAs). DESIGN: Cross-sectional nationally representative demographic health survey of Kenya (2003) and Malawi (2004-2005) that included HIV testing for consenting adults. METHODS: We analyzed demographic health survey data for awareness of HIV status and sexual behaviors of PLWHAs (Kenya: 412; Malawi: 664). The analysis was adjusted (weighted) for the design of the survey and the results are nationally representative. FINDINGS: Eighty-four percent of PLWHAs in Kenya and 86% in Malawi had sex in the past 12 months and in each country, 10% reported using condoms at last intercourse. Among sexually active PLWHAs, 86% in Kenya and 96% in Malawi reported their spouse or cohabiting partner as their most recent partner. In multivariate logistic regression models, married or cohabiting PLWHAs were significantly more likely to be sexually active and less likely to use condoms. Over 80% of PLWHAs were unaware of their HIV status. Of HIV-infected women, nearly three-quarters did not want more children either within the next 2 years or ever, but 32% in Kenya and 20% in Malawi were using contraception. INTERPRETATION: In 2003-2005, majority of PLWHAs in Kenya and Malawi were unaware of their HIV status and were sexually active, especially married or cohabiting PLWHAs. Of HIV-infected women not wanting more children, few used contraception. HIV testing should be expanded, prevention programs should target married or cohabiting couples and family planning services should be integrated with HIV services.