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Transcript levels of cytokines and SERPINA3 have been used to define a substantial subset (40%) of individuals with schizophrenia with elevated inflammation and worse neuropathology in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC). In this study, we tested if inflammatory proteins are likewise related to high and low inflammatory states in the human DLFPC in people with schizophrenia and controls. Levels of inflammatory cytokines (IL6, IL1ß, IL18, IL8) and a macrophage marker (CD163 protein) were measured in brains obtained from the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH) (N = 92). First, we tested for diagnostic differences in protein levels overall, then we determined the percentage of individuals that could be defined as "high" inflammation using protein levels. IL-18 was the only cytokine to show increased expression in schizophrenia compared to controls overall. Interestingly, two-step recursive clustering analysis showed that IL6, IL18, and CD163 protein levels could be used as predictors of "high and low" inflammatory subgroups. By this model, a significantly greater proportion of schizophrenia cases (18/32; 56.25%; SCZ) were identified as belonging to the high inflammatory (HI) subgroup compared to control cases (18/60; 30%; CTRL) [χ2(1) = 6.038, p = 0.014]. When comparing across inflammatory subgroups, IL6, IL1ß, IL18, IL8, and CD163 protein levels were elevated in both SCZ-HI and CTRL-HI compared to both low inflammatory subgroups (all p < 0.05). Surprisingly, TNFα levels were significantly decreased (-32.2%) in schizophrenia compared to controls (p < 0.001), and were most diminished in the SCZ-HI subgroup compared to both CTRL-LI and CTRL-HI subgroups (p < 0.05). Next, we asked if the anatomical distribution and density of CD163+ macrophages differed in those with schizophrenia and high inflammation status. Macrophages were localized to perivascular sites and found surrounding small, medium and large blood vessels in both gray matter and white matter, with macrophage density highest at the pial surface in all schizophrenia cases examined. A higher density of CD163+ macrophages, that were also larger and more darkly stained, was found in the SCZ-HI subgroup (+154% p < 0.05). We also confirmed the rare existence of parenchymal CD163+ macrophages in both high inflammation subgroups (schizophrenia and controls). Brain CD163+ cell density around blood vessels positively correlated with CD163 protein levels. In conclusion, we find a link between elevated interleukin cytokine protein levels, decreased TNFα protein levels, and elevated CD163+ macrophage densities especially along small blood vessels in those with neuroinflammatory schizophrenia.
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Esquizofrenia , Humanos , Esquizofrenia/metabolismo , Interleucina-18 , Fator de Necrose Tumoral alfa , Microglia/metabolismo , Interleucina-6 , Interleucina-8 , Macrófagos/metabolismo , Inflamação , Citocinas/metabolismoRESUMO
Macrophages are common targets for infection and innate immune activation by many pathogenic viruses including the neurotropic Theiler's Murine Encephalomyelitis Virus (TMEV). As both infection and innate activation of macrophages are key determinants of viral pathogenesis especially in the central nervous system (CNS), an analysis of macrophage growth factors on these events was performed. C3H mouse bone-marrow cells were differentiated in culture using either recombinant macrophage colony stimulating factor (M-CSF) or granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF), inoculated with TMEV (BeAn) and analyzed at various times thereafter. Cytokine RNA and protein analysis, virus titers, and flow cytometry were performed to characterize virological parameters under these culture conditions. GM-CSF-differentiated macrophages showed higher levels of TMEV viral RNA and proinflammatory molecules compared to infected M-CSF-differentiated cells. Thus, GM-CSF increases both TMEV infection and TMEV-induced activation of macrophages compared to that seen with M-CSF. Moreover, while infectious viral particles decreased from a peak at 12h to undetectable levels at 48h post infection, TMEV viral RNA remained higher in GM-CSF- compared to M-CSF-differentiated macrophages in concert with increased proinflammatory gene expression. Analysis of a possible basis for these differences determined that glycolytic rates contributed to heightened virus replication and proinflammatory cytokine secretion in GM-CSF compared to M-CSF-differentiated macrophages. In conclusion, we provide evidence implicating a role for GM-CSF in promoting virus replication and proinflammatory cytokine expression in macrophages, indicating that GM-CSF may be a key factor for TMEV infection and the induction of chronic TMEV-induced immunopathogenesis in the CNS.
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Infecções por Cardiovirus/etiologia , Fator Estimulador de Colônias de Granulócitos e Macrófagos/imunologia , Ativação de Macrófagos , Fator Estimulador de Colônias de Macrófagos/imunologia , Theilovirus/patogenicidade , Animais , Infecções por Cardiovirus/imunologia , Infecções por Cardiovirus/virologia , Diferenciação Celular/imunologia , Quimiocinas/genética , Quimiocinas/metabolismo , Citocinas/genética , Citocinas/metabolismo , Glicólise , Macrófagos/imunologia , Macrófagos/patologia , Macrófagos/virologia , Camundongos , RNA Mensageiro/genética , RNA Mensageiro/metabolismo , RNA Viral/genética , Theilovirus/genética , Theilovirus/isolamento & purificação , Replicação Viral/imunologiaRESUMO
Virus-induced myositis is an emerging global affliction that remains poorly characterized with few treatment options. Moreover, muscle-tropic viruses often spread to the CNS, causing dramatically increased morbidity. Therefore, there is an urgent need to explore genetic factors involved in this class of human disease. This report investigates critical innate immune pathways affecting murine virus-induced myositis. Of particular importance, the key immune regulator src homology region 2 domain-containing phosphatase 1 (SHP-1), which normally suppresses macrophage-mediated inflammation, is a major factor in promoting clinical disease in muscle. We show that Theiler's murine encephalomyelitis virus (TMEV) infection of skeletal myofibers induces inflammation and subsequent dystrophic calcification, with loss of ambulation in wild-type (WT) mice. Surprisingly, although similar extensive myofiber infection and inflammation are observed in SHP-1(-/-) mice, these mice neither accumulate dead calcified myofibers nor lose ambulation. Macrophages were the predominant effector cells infiltrating WT and SHP-1(-/-) muscle, and an increased infiltration of immature monocytes/macrophages correlated with an absence of clinical disease in SHP-1(-/-) mice, whereas mature M1-like macrophages corresponded with increased myofiber degeneration in WT mice. Furthermore, blocking SHP-1 activation in WT macrophages blocked virus-induced myofiber degeneration, and pharmacologic ablation of macrophages inhibited muscle calcification in TMEV-infected WT animals. These data suggest that, following TMEV infection of muscle, SHP-1 promotes M1 differentiation of infiltrating macrophages, and these inflammatory macrophages are likely involved in damaging muscle fibers. These findings reveal a pathological role for SHP-1 in promoting inflammatory macrophage differentiation and myofiber damage in virus-infected skeletal muscle, thus identifying SHP-1 and M1 macrophages as essential mediators of virus-induced myopathy.
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Infecções por Cardiovirus/imunologia , Diferenciação Celular/imunologia , Macrófagos/imunologia , Miosite/imunologia , Proteína Tirosina Fosfatase não Receptora Tipo 6/imunologia , Theilovirus/imunologia , Animais , Anticorpos Neutralizantes/imunologia , Anticorpos Neutralizantes/farmacologia , Antígeno CD47/imunologia , Antígeno CD47/metabolismo , Infecções por Cardiovirus/genética , Infecções por Cardiovirus/virologia , Diferenciação Celular/genética , Citometria de Fluxo , Interações Hospedeiro-Patógeno/efeitos dos fármacos , Interações Hospedeiro-Patógeno/imunologia , Humanos , Macrófagos/metabolismo , Macrófagos/patologia , Camundongos Endogâmicos C3H , Camundongos Endogâmicos C57BL , Camundongos Knockout , Microscopia de Fluorescência , Monócitos/imunologia , Monócitos/metabolismo , Monócitos/patologia , Músculo Esquelético/metabolismo , Músculo Esquelético/patologia , Músculo Esquelético/virologia , Miosite/genética , Miosite/virologia , Análise de Sequência com Séries de Oligonucleotídeos , Proteína Tirosina Fosfatase não Receptora Tipo 6/deficiência , Proteína Tirosina Fosfatase não Receptora Tipo 6/genética , Theilovirus/fisiologia , Transcriptoma/imunologia , Replicação Viral/imunologiaRESUMO
We have previously described reduced myelination and corresponding myelin basic protein (MBP) expression in the central nervous system of Src homology 2 domain-containing protein tyrosine phosphatase 1 (SHP-1) deficient motheaten (me/me) mice compared with normal littermate controls. Deficiency in myelin and MBP expression in both brains and spinal cords of motheaten mice correlated with reduced MBP mRNA expression levels in vivo and in purified oligodendrocytes in vitro. Therefore, SHP-1 activity seems to be a critical regulator of oligodendrocyte gene expression and function. Consistent with this role, this study demonstrates that oligodendrocytes of motheaten mice and SHP-1-depleted N20.1 cells produce higher levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and exhibit corresponding markers of increased oxidative stress. In agreement with these findings, we demonstrate that increased production of ROS coincides with ROS-induced signaling pathways known to affect myelin gene expression in oligodendrocytes. Antioxidant treatment of SHP-1-deficient oligodendrocytes reversed the pathological changes in these cells, with increased myelin protein gene expression and decreased expression of nuclear factor (erythroid-2)-related factor 2 (Nrf2) responsive gene, heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1). Furthermore, we demonstrate that SHP-1 is expressed in human white matter oligodendrocytes, and there is a subset of multiple sclerosis subjects that demonstrate a deficiency of SHP-1 in normal-appearing white matter. These studies reveal critical pathways controlled by SHP-1 in oligodendrocytes that relate to susceptibility of SHP-1-deficient mice to both developmental defects in myelination and to inflammatory demyelinating diseases.
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Sistema Nervoso Central/patologia , Regulação da Expressão Gênica/genética , Esclerose Múltipla/patologia , Oligodendroglia/metabolismo , Proteína Tirosina Fosfatase não Receptora Tipo 6/metabolismo , Espécies Reativas de Oxigênio/metabolismo , Animais , Animais Recém-Nascidos , Células Cultivadas , Citocinas/genética , Citocinas/metabolismo , Proteínas de Ligação a DNA/genética , Proteínas de Ligação a DNA/metabolismo , Modelos Animais de Doenças , Regulação da Expressão Gênica/efeitos dos fármacos , Glutationa/metabolismo , Humanos , Peróxido de Hidrogênio/metabolismo , Camundongos , Camundongos Transgênicos , Esclerose Múltipla/genética , Proteínas da Mielina/genética , Proteínas da Mielina/metabolismo , NF-kappa B/metabolismo , Carbonilação Proteica/genética , Proteína Tirosina Fosfatase não Receptora Tipo 6/genéticaRESUMO
Escape from immune detection favors both tumor survival and progression, and new approaches to circumvent this are essential to combat cancers. Nonvirulent, tumor-tropic bacteria, such as Salmonella typhimurium, can unmask a tumor by transforming it into a site of inflammation; however, the nonspecific invasiveness of Salmonella leads to off-target effects diluting its therapeutic efficacy and making its use in human patients inherently risky. Here, we demonstrate that Salmonella tumor specificity can be significantly improved via a surface-expressed single-domain antibody directed to a tumor-associated antigen (CD20). Antibody-dependent bacterial targeting specifies the infection of CD20+ lymphoma cells in vitro and in vivo, while significantly diminishing nonspecific cell invasion. Indeed, CD20-targeted Salmonella was less generally invasive, even in organs that normally serve as physiological reservoirs. Furthermore, tumor-specific Salmonella engineered to carry the herpes simplex virus thymidine kinase prodrug-converting enzyme effectively treats human lymphoma xenografts when coadministered intratumorally or intravenously with ganciclovir in mice lacking a functional adaptive immune system. Therefore, tumor-targeted Salmonella could prove effective even in those patients displaying a debilitated immune system, which is often the case with late-stage cancers. Altogether, antibody-displaying Salmonella vectors can mediate a tumor-specific response and rejection with few detectable adverse effects while specifically delivering cytotoxic payloads.
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Anticorpos Monoclonais/biossíntese , Antígenos CD20/imunologia , Linfoma/terapia , Pró-Fármacos/metabolismo , Proteínas Recombinantes/metabolismo , Salmonella typhimurium/metabolismo , Timidina Quinase/biossíntese , Animais , Anticorpos Monoclonais/genética , Anticorpos Monoclonais/uso terapêutico , Linhagem Celular Tumoral , Feminino , Expressão Gênica , Engenharia Genética , Humanos , Linfoma/patologia , Camundongos , Camundongos Endogâmicos C57BL , Camundongos Endogâmicos NOD , Camundongos SCID , Proteínas Recombinantes/genética , Indução de Remissão/métodos , Salmonella typhimurium/genética , Timidina Quinase/genética , Timidina Quinase/metabolismo , Timidina Quinase/uso terapêutico , Ensaios Antitumorais Modelo de XenoenxertoRESUMO
Sarcoidosis is an immune-mediated multisystem disease characterized by the formation of non-caseating granulomas. The pathogenesis of sarcoidosis is unclear, with proposed infectious or environmental antigens triggering an aberrant immune response in susceptible hosts. Multiple pro-inflammatory signaling pathways have been implicated in mediating macrophage activation and granuloma formation in sarcoidosis, including IFN-γ/STAT-1, IL-6/STAT-3, and NF-κB. It is difficult to distinguish sarcoidosis from other granulomatous diseases or assess disease severity and treatment response with histopathology alone. Therefore, development of improved diagnostic tools is imperative. Herein, we describe an efficient and reliable technique to classify granulomatous disease through selected gene expression and identify novel genes and cytokine pathways contributing to the pathogenesis of sarcoidosis. We quantified the expression of twenty selected mRNAs extracted from formalin-fixed paraffin embedded (FFPE) tissue (n = 38) of normal lung, suture granulomas, sarcoid granulomas, and fungal granulomas. Utilizing quantitative real-time RT-PCR we analyzed the expression of several genes, including IL-6, COX-2, MCP-1, IFN-γ, T-bet, IRF-1, Nox2, IL-33, and eotaxin-1 and revealed differential regulation between suture, sarcoidosis, and fungal granulomas. This is the first study demonstrating that quantification of target gene expression in FFPE tissue biopsies is a potentially effective diagnostic and research tool in sarcoidosis.
Assuntos
Marcadores Genéticos , Granuloma/genética , Sarcoidose/diagnóstico , Sarcoidose/genética , Transcriptoma , Adolescente , Adulto , Idoso , Idoso de 80 Anos ou mais , Quimiocina CCL11/genética , Quimiocina CCL11/metabolismo , Quimiocina CCL2/genética , Quimiocina CCL2/metabolismo , Criança , Ciclo-Oxigenase 2/genética , Ciclo-Oxigenase 2/metabolismo , Feminino , Expressão Gênica , Granuloma/imunologia , Granuloma/patologia , Humanos , Interferon gama/genética , Interferon gama/metabolismo , Interleucina-33 , Interleucina-6/genética , Interleucina-6/metabolismo , Interleucinas/genética , Interleucinas/metabolismo , Masculino , Glicoproteínas de Membrana/genética , Glicoproteínas de Membrana/metabolismo , Pessoa de Meia-Idade , NADPH Oxidase 2 , NADPH Oxidases/genética , NADPH Oxidases/metabolismo , NF-kappa B/genética , NF-kappa B/metabolismo , Fator de Transcrição STAT1/genética , Fator de Transcrição STAT1/metabolismo , Fator de Transcrição STAT3/genética , Fator de Transcrição STAT3/metabolismo , Sarcoidose/imunologia , Sarcoidose/patologia , Manejo de Espécimes , Regulação para Cima , Adulto JovemRESUMO
Tick-borne flaviviruses (TBFV) can cause severe neuroinvasive disease which may result in death or long-term neurological deficit in over 50% of survivors. Multiple mechanisms for invasion of the central nervous system (CNS) by flaviviruses have been proposed including axonal transport, transcytosis, endothelial infection, and Trojan horse routes. Flaviviruses may utilize different or multiple mechanisms of neuroinvasion depending on the specific virus, infection site, and host variability. In this work we have shown that the infection of BALB/cJ mice with either Powassan virus lineage I (Powassan virus) or lineage II (deer tick virus) results in distinct spatial tropism of infection in the CNS which correlates with unique clinical presentations for each lineage. Comparative transcriptomics of infected brains demonstrates the activation of different immune pathways and downstream host responses. Ultimately, the comparative pathology and transcriptomics are congruent with different clinical signs in a murine model. These results suggest that the different disease presentations occur in clinical cases due to the inherent differences in the two lineages of Powassan virus.
Assuntos
Encéfalo , Vírus da Encefalite Transmitidos por Carrapatos , Encefalite Transmitida por Carrapatos , Camundongos Endogâmicos BALB C , Animais , Camundongos , Vírus da Encefalite Transmitidos por Carrapatos/patogenicidade , Vírus da Encefalite Transmitidos por Carrapatos/fisiologia , Vírus da Encefalite Transmitidos por Carrapatos/genética , Encefalite Transmitida por Carrapatos/virologia , Encefalite Transmitida por Carrapatos/patologia , Encéfalo/virologia , Encéfalo/patologia , Inflamação/virologia , Modelos Animais de Doenças , Feminino , TranscriptomaRESUMO
Increased activation of inflammatory macrophages and altered expression of dopamine markers are found in the midbrains of people with schizophrenia (SZ). The relationship of midbrain macrophages to dopamine neurons has not been explored, nor is it known if changes in midbrain macrophages are also present in bipolar disorder (BD) or major depressive disorder (MDD). Herein, we determined whether there were differences in CD163+ cell density in the Substantia Nigra (SN), and cerebral peduncles (CP) of SZ, BD, and MDD compared to controls (CTRL). We also analyzed whether CD163 protein and dopamine-synthesizing enzyme tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) mRNA levels differed among diagnostic groups and if they correlated with the density of macrophages. Overall, perivascular CD163+ cell density was higher in the gray matter (SN) than in the white matter (CP). Compared to CTRL, we found increased density of parenchymal CD163+ cells in the SN of the three psychiatric groups and increased CD163 protein levels in SZ. CD163 protein was positively correlated with density of perivascular CD163+ cells. TH mRNA was reduced in SZ and BD and negatively correlated with parenchymal CD163+ cell density. We provide the first quantitative and molecular evidence of an increase in the density of parenchymal macrophages in the midbrain of major mental illnesses and show that the presence of these macrophages may negatively impact dopaminergic neurons.
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Mitochondrial biogenesis requires the import of >1,000 mitochondrial preproteins from the cytosol. Most studies on mitochondrial protein import are focused on the core import machinery. Whether and how the biophysical properties of substrate preproteins affect overall import efficiency is underexplored. Here, we show that protein traffic into mitochondria can be disrupted by amino acid substitutions in a single substrate preprotein. Pathogenic missense mutations in ADP/ATP translocase 1 (ANT1), and its yeast homolog ADP/ATP carrier 2 (Aac2), cause the protein to accumulate along the protein import pathway, thereby obstructing general protein translocation into mitochondria. This impairs mitochondrial respiration, cytosolic proteostasis, and cell viability independent of ANT1's nucleotide transport activity. The mutations act synergistically, as double mutant Aac2/ANT1 causes severe clogging primarily at the translocase of the outer membrane (TOM) complex. This confers extreme toxicity in yeast. In mice, expression of a super-clogger ANT1 variant led to neurodegeneration and an age-dependent dominant myopathy that phenocopy ANT1-induced human disease, suggesting clogging as a mechanism of disease. More broadly, this work implies the existence of uncharacterized amino acid requirements for mitochondrial carrier proteins to avoid clogging and subsequent disease.
Inside our cells, compartments known as mitochondria generate the chemical energy required for life processes to unfold. Most of the proteins found within mitochondria are manufactured in another part of the cell (known as the cytosol) and then imported with the help of specialist machinery. For example, the TOM and TIM22 channels provide a route for the proteins to cross the two membrane barriers that separate the cytosol from the inside of a mitochondrion. ANT1 is a protein that is found inside mitochondria in humans, where it acts as a transport system for the cell's energy currency. Specific mutations in the gene encoding ANT1 have been linked to degenerative conditions that affect the muscles and the brain. However, it remains unclear how these mutations cause disease. To address this question, Coyne et al. recreated some of the mutations in the gene encoding the yeast equivalent of ANT1 (known as Aac2). Experiments in yeast cells carrying these mutations showed that the Aac2 protein accumulated in the TOM and TIM22 channels, creating a 'clog' that prevented other essential proteins from reaching the mitochondria. As a result, the yeast cells died. Mutant forms of the human ANT1 protein also clogged up the TOM and TIM22 channels of human cells in a similar way. Further experiments focused on mice genetically engineered to produce a "super-clogger" version of the mouse equivalent of ANT1. The animals soon developed muscle and neurological conditions similar to those observed in human diseases associated with ANT1. The findings of Coyne et al. suggest that certain genetic mutations in the gene encoding the ANT1 protein cause disease by blocking the transport of other proteins to the mitochondria, rather than by directly affecting ANT1's nucleotide trnsport role in the cell. This redefines our understanding of diseases associated with mitochondrial proteins, potentially altering how treatments for these conditions are designed.
Assuntos
Proteínas de Saccharomyces cerevisiae , Saccharomyces cerevisiae , Animais , Humanos , Camundongos , Saccharomyces cerevisiae/genética , Saccharomyces cerevisiae/metabolismo , Proteínas de Saccharomyces cerevisiae/genética , Proteínas de Saccharomyces cerevisiae/metabolismo , Mitocôndrias/metabolismo , Translocases Mitocondriais de ADP e ATP/metabolismo , Proteínas de Transporte/metabolismo , Transporte Proteico , Proteínas Mitocondriais/genética , Proteínas Mitocondriais/metabolismo , Proteínas de Transporte da Membrana Mitocondrial/metabolismoRESUMO
Innate immune responses to coronavirus infections are highly cell specific. Tissue-resident macrophages, which are infected by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) in patients but are inconsistently infected in vitro, exert critical but conflicting effects by secreting both antiviral type I interferons (IFNs) and tissue-damaging inflammatory cytokines. Steroids, the only class of host-targeting drugs approved for the treatment of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), indiscriminately suppress both responses, possibly impairing viral clearance. Here, we established in vitro cell culture systems that enabled us to separately investigate the cell-intrinsic and cell-extrinsic proinflammatory and antiviral activities of mouse macrophages infected with the prototypical murine coronavirus MHV-A59. We showed that the nuclear factor κB-dependent inflammatory response to viral infection was selectively inhibited by loss of the lysine demethylase LSD1, which was previously implicated in innate immune responses to cancer, with negligible effects on the antiviral IFN response. LSD1 ablation also enhanced an IFN-independent antiviral response, blocking viral egress through the lysosomal pathway. The macrophage-intrinsic antiviral and anti-inflammatory activity of Lsd1 inhibition was confirmed in vitro and in a humanized mouse model of SARS-CoV-2 infection. These results suggest that LSD1 controls innate immune responses against coronaviruses at multiple levels and provide a mechanistic rationale for potentially repurposing LSD1 inhibitors for COVID-19 treatment.
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COVID-19 , Lisina , Animais , Humanos , Camundongos , Antivirais/farmacologia , Tratamento Farmacológico da COVID-19 , Citocinas/metabolismo , SARS-CoV-2/metabolismoRESUMO
Multiple sclerosis (MS) is an immune-mediated demyelinating disease of the central nervous system (CNS). Here we document for the first time that the cytokine IL-33 is upregulated in both the periphery and the CNS of MS patients. Plasma IL-33 was elevated in MS patients compared to normal subjects and a three-month treatment of MS patients with interferon ß-1a resulted in a significant decrease of IL-33 levels. Similarly, stimulated cultured lymphocytes and macrophages from MS patients had elevated IL-33 levels compared to normal subjects. In parallel, the transcription factor NF-κB that mediates IL-33 transcription was also elevated in leukocytes of MS patients. IL-33 was elevated in normal-appearing white matter and plaque areas from MS brains and astrocytes were identified as an important source of IL-33 expression in the CNS. In summary, IL-33 levels are elevated in the periphery and CNS of MS patients, implicating IL-33 in the pathogenesis of MS.
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Sistema Nervoso Central/imunologia , Interleucinas/imunologia , Linfócitos/imunologia , Esclerose Múltipla/imunologia , Adulto , Células Cultivadas , Feminino , Humanos , Interleucina-33 , Macrófagos/imunologia , Masculino , Pessoa de Meia-Idade , NF-kappa B/imunologia , Regulação para CimaRESUMO
The histologic analysis of brain and spinal cord specimens isolated from mice is common practice for the assessment of pathology in this model system. To maintain the morphology of these delicate tissues, it is routine to administer a chemical fixative such as paraformaldehyde via cannulation of the heart in anesthetized animals (transcardial perfusion). Transcardial perfusion of the mouse heart has traditionally relied on the use of peristaltic pumps or air pressure to deliver both the saline and fixative solutions necessary for this process. As an easily accessible alternative to these methods, this work demonstrates the use of a gravity-fed method of perfusate delivery that uses materials available in most hardware stores. To validate this new perfusion method, this work demonstrates all the subsequent steps necessary for the sensitive detection of phosphorylated α-synuclein in both the brain and spinal cord. Included in these steps are the dissection of the fixed brain and spinal cord tissues, rapid freezing/embedding and cryosectioning of the tissues, and immunofluorescent staining. As this method results in whole-body delivery of the fixative, it may also be used to prepare other non-neuronal tissues for histologic analysis.
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Encéfalo , Medula Espinal , Animais , Encéfalo/patologia , Fixadores , Camundongos , Perfusão/métodos , Medula Espinal/cirurgia , Coloração e RotulagemRESUMO
Approximately 40% of people with schizophrenia are classified as having "high inflammation." This subgroup has worse neuropathology than patients with "low inflammation." Thus, one would expect the resident microglia and possibly monocyte-derived macrophages infiltrating from the periphery to be "activated" in those with schizophrenia with elevated neuroinflammation. To test whether microglia and/or macrophages are associated with increased inflammatory signaling in schizophrenia, we measured microglia- and macrophage-associated transcripts in the postmortem dorsolateral prefrontal cortex of 69 controls and 72 people with schizophrenia. Both groups were stratified by neuroinflammatory status based on cortical mRNA levels of cytokines and SERPINA3. We found microglial mRNAs levels were either unchanged (IBA1 and Hexb, p > 0.20) or decreased (CD11c, <62% p < 0.001) in high inflammation schizophrenia compared to controls. Conversely, macrophage CD163 mRNA levels were increased in patients, substantially so in the high inflammation schizophrenia subgroup compared to low inflammation subgroup (>250%, p < 0.0001). In contrast, high inflammation controls did not have elevated CD163 mRNA compared to low inflammation controls (p > 0.05). The pro-inflammatory macrophage marker (CD64 mRNA) was elevated (>160%, all p < 0.05) and more related to CD163 mRNA in the high inflammation schizophrenia subgroup compared to high inflammation controls, while anti-inflammatory macrophage and cytokine markers (CD206 and IL-10 mRNAs) were either unchanged or decreased in schizophrenia. Finally, macrophage recruitment chemokine CCL2 mRNA was increased in schizophrenia (>200%, p < 0.0001) and CCL2 mRNA levels positively correlated with CD163 mRNA (r = 0.46, p < 0.0001). Collectively, our findings support the co-existence of quiescent microglia and increased pro-inflammatory macrophages in the cortex of people with schizophrenia.
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Solid tumor cells have an altered metabolism that can protect them from cytotoxic lymphocytes. The anti-diabetic drug metformin modifies tumor cell metabolism and several clinical trials are testing its effectiveness for the treatment of solid cancers. The use of metformin in hematologic cancers has received much less attention, although allogeneic cytotoxic lymphocytes are very effective against these tumors. We show here that metformin induces expression of Natural Killer G2-D (NKG2D) ligands (NKG2DL) and intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1), a ligand of the lymphocyte function-associated antigen 1 (LFA-1). This leads to enhance sensitivity to cytotoxic lymphocytes. Overexpression of anti-apoptotic Bcl-2 family members decrease both metformin effects. The sensitization to activated cytotoxic lymphocytes is mainly mediated by the increase on ICAM-1 levels, which favors cytotoxic lymphocytes binding to tumor cells. Finally, metformin decreases the growth of human hematological tumor cells in xenograft models, mainly in presence of monoclonal antibodies that recognize tumor antigens. Our results suggest that metformin could improve cytotoxic lymphocyte-mediated therapy.
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Molécula 1 de Adesão Intercelular/fisiologia , Metformina/farmacologia , Neoplasias/tratamento farmacológico , Animais , Humanos , Células Matadoras Naturais , Masculino , Camundongos , Camundongos Endogâmicos NOD , Células Tumorais CultivadasRESUMO
Leukemic cells proliferate faster than non-transformed counterparts. This requires them to change their metabolism to adapt to their high growth. This change can stress cells and facilitate recognition by immune cells such as cytotoxic lymphocytes, which express the activating receptor Natural Killer G2-D (NKG2D). The tumor suppressor gene p53 regulates cell metabolism, but its role in the expression of metabolism-induced ligands, and subsequent recognition by cytotoxic lymphocytes, is unknown. We show here that dichloroacetate (DCA), which induces oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS) in tumor cells, induces the expression of such ligands, e.g. MICA/B, ULBP1 and ICAM-I, by a wtp53-dependent mechanism. Mutant or null p53 have the opposite effect. Conversely, DCA sensitizes only wtp53-expressing cells to cytotoxic lymphocytes, i.e. cytotoxic T lymphocytes and NK cells. In xenograft in vivo models, DCA slows down the growth of tumors with low proliferation. Treatment with DCA, monoclonal antibodies and NK cells also decreased tumors with high proliferation. Treatment of patients with DCA, or a biosimilar drug, could be a clinical option to increase the effectiveness of CAR T cell or allogeneic NK cell therapies.
Assuntos
Antineoplásicos , Leucemia , Proteína Supressora de Tumor p53 , Antineoplásicos/metabolismo , Antígenos de Histocompatibilidade Classe I/imunologia , Antígenos de Histocompatibilidade Classe I/metabolismo , Humanos , Células Matadoras Naturais/imunologia , Células Matadoras Naturais/metabolismo , Leucemia/imunologia , Leucemia/metabolismo , Ligantes , Subfamília K de Receptores Semelhantes a Lectina de Células NK/imunologia , Subfamília K de Receptores Semelhantes a Lectina de Células NK/metabolismo , Proteína Supressora de Tumor p53/imunologia , Proteína Supressora de Tumor p53/metabolismoRESUMO
The protein tyrosine phosphatase SHP-1 is a crucial negative regulator of cytokine signaling and inflammatory gene expression, both in the immune system and in the central nervous system (CNS). Mice genetically lacking SHP-1 (me/me) display severe inflammatory demyelinating disease following inoculation with the Theiler's murine encephalomyelitis virus (TMEV) compared to infected wild-type mice. Therefore, it became essential to investigate the mechanisms of TMEV-induced inflammation in the CNS of SHP-1-deficient mice. Herein, we show that the expression of several genes relevant to inflammatory demyelination in the CNS of infected me/me mice is elevated compared to that in wild-type mice. Furthermore, SHP-1 deficiency led to an abundant and exclusive increase in the infiltration of high-level-CD45-expressing (CD45(hi)) CD11b(+) Ly-6C(hi) macrophages into the CNS of me/me mice, in concert with the development of paralysis. Histological analyses of spinal cords revealed the localization of these macrophages to extensive inflammatory demyelinating lesions in infected SHP-1-deficient mice. Sorted populations of CNS-infiltrating macrophages from infected me/me mice showed increased amounts of viral RNA and an enhanced inflammatory profile compared to wild-type macrophages. Importantly, the application of clodronate liposomes effectively depleted splenic and CNS-infiltrating macrophages and significantly delayed the onset of TMEV-induced paralysis. Furthermore, macrophage depletion resulted in lower viral loads and lower levels of inflammatory gene expression and demyelination in the spinal cords of me/me mice. Finally, me/me macrophages were more responsive than wild-type macrophages to chemoattractive stimuli secreted by me/me glial cells, indicating a mechanism for the increased numbers of infiltrating macrophages seen in the CNS of me/me mice. Taken together, these findings demonstrate that infiltrating macrophages in SHP-1-deficient mice play a crucial role in promoting viral replication by providing abundant viral targets and contribute to increased proinflammatory gene expression relevant to the effector mechanisms of macrophage-mediated demyelination.
Assuntos
Sistema Nervoso Central/imunologia , Inflamação/imunologia , Macrófagos/imunologia , Poliomielite/imunologia , Poliomielite/patologia , Proteína Tirosina Fosfatase não Receptora Tipo 6/imunologia , Theilovirus/imunologia , Animais , Antígenos Ly/análise , Antígeno CD11b/análise , Ácido Clodrônico/farmacologia , Perfilação da Expressão Gênica , Fatores Imunológicos , Antígenos Comuns de Leucócito/análise , Procedimentos de Redução de Leucócitos , Macrófagos/química , Macrófagos/virologia , Camundongos , Camundongos Endogâmicos C3H , Camundongos Knockout , Proteína Tirosina Fosfatase não Receptora Tipo 6/deficiência , Medula Espinal/patologiaRESUMO
NF-kappaB transcription factors induce a host of genes involved in pro-inflammatory/stress-like responses; but the collateral effects and consequences of sustained NF-kappaB activation on other cellular gene expression programming remain less well understood. Here enforced expression of a constitutively active IKKbeta T-loop mutant (IKKbetaca) drove murine fibroblasts into transient growth arrest that subsided within 2-3 weeks of continuous culture. Proliferation arrest was associated with a G1/S phase block in immortalized and primary early passage MEFs. Molecular analysis in immortalized MEFs revealed that inhibition of cell proliferation in the initial 1-2 weeks after their IKKbetaca retroviral infection was linked to the transient, concerted repression of essential cell cycle effectors that are known targets of either E2F or FoxM1. Co-expression of a phosphorylation resistant IkappaBalpha super repressor and IKKbetaca abrogated growth arrest and cell cycle effector repression, thereby linking IKKbetaca's effects to canonical NF-kappaB activation. Transient growth arrest of IKKbetaca cells was associated with enhanced p21 (cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor 1A) protein expression, due in part to transcriptional activation by NF-kappaB and also likely due to strong repression of Skp2 and Csk1, both of which are FoxM1 direct targets mediating proteasomal dependent p21 turnover. Ablation of p21 in immortalized MEFs reduced their IKKbetaca mediated growth suppression. Moreover, trichostatin A inhibition of HDACs alleviated the repression of E2F and FoxM1 targets induced by IKKbetaca, suggesting chromatin mediated gene silencing in IKKbetaca's short term repressive effects on E2F and FoxM1 target gene expression.
Assuntos
Ciclo Celular/fisiologia , Proliferação de Células , Fatores de Transcrição E2F/metabolismo , Fatores de Transcrição Forkhead/metabolismo , NF-kappa B/metabolismo , Animais , Sequência de Bases , Células Cultivadas , Inibidor de Quinase Dependente de Ciclina p21/metabolismo , Primers do DNA/genética , Proteína Forkhead Box M1 , Inativação Gênica , Histona Desacetilases/metabolismo , Quinase I-kappa B/deficiência , Quinase I-kappa B/genética , Quinase I-kappa B/metabolismo , Proteínas I-kappa B/genética , Proteínas I-kappa B/metabolismo , Peptídeos e Proteínas de Sinalização Intracelular/deficiência , Peptídeos e Proteínas de Sinalização Intracelular/genética , Peptídeos e Proteínas de Sinalização Intracelular/metabolismo , Camundongos , Camundongos Knockout , Mutação , Inibidor de NF-kappaB alfa , Proteínas Repressoras/metabolismo , Transdução de SinaisRESUMO
Recent studies in mice have demonstrated that the protein tyrosine phosphatase SHP-1 is a crucial negative regulator of proinflammatory cytokine signaling, TLR signaling, and inflammatory gene expression. Furthermore, mice genetically lacking SHP-1 (me/me) display a profound susceptibility to inflammatory CNS demyelination relative to wild-type mice. In particular, SHP-1 deficiency may act predominantly in inflammatory macrophages to increase CNS demyelination as SHP-1-deficient macrophages display coexpression of inflammatory effector molecules and increased demyelinating activity in me/me mice. Recently, we reported that PBMCs of multiple sclerosis (MS) patients have a deficiency in SHP-1 expression relative to normal control subjects indicating that SHP-1 deficiency may play a similar role in MS as to that seen in mice. Therefore, it became essential to examine the specific expression and function of SHP-1 in macrophages from MS patients. Herein, we document that macrophages of MS patients have deficient SHP-1 protein and mRNA expression relative to those of normal control subjects. To examine functional consequences of the lower SHP-1, the activation of STAT6, STAT1, and NF-kappaB was quantified and macrophages of MS patients showed increased activation of these transcription factors. In accordance with this observation, several STAT6-, STAT1-, and NF-kappaB-responsive genes that mediate inflammatory demyelination were increased in macrophages of MS patients following cytokine and TLR agonist stimulation. Supporting a direct role of SHP-1 deficiency in altered macrophage function, experimental depletion of SHP-1 in normal subject macrophages resulted in an increased STAT/NF-kappaB activation and increased inflammatory gene expression to levels seen in macrophages of MS patients. In conclusion, macrophages of MS patients display a deficiency of SHP-1 expression, heightened activation of STAT6, STAT1, and NF-kappaB and a corresponding inflammatory profile that may be important in controlling macrophage-mediated demyelination in MS.
Assuntos
Macrófagos/enzimologia , Esclerose Múltipla Recidivante-Remitente/enzimologia , Proteína Tirosina Fosfatase não Receptora Tipo 6/deficiência , Proteína Tirosina Fosfatase não Receptora Tipo 6/genética , Adulto , Sequência de Bases , Estudos de Casos e Controles , Citocinas/antagonistas & inibidores , Citocinas/genética , Citocinas/metabolismo , Primers do DNA/genética , Doenças Desmielinizantes/enzimologia , Doenças Desmielinizantes/genética , Doenças Desmielinizantes/patologia , Feminino , Expressão Gênica , Humanos , Técnicas In Vitro , Inflamação/enzimologia , Inflamação/genética , Inflamação/patologia , Masculino , Pessoa de Meia-Idade , Esclerose Múltipla Recidivante-Remitente/genética , Esclerose Múltipla Recidivante-Remitente/patologia , NF-kappa B/metabolismo , Fenótipo , Regiões Promotoras Genéticas , RNA Mensageiro/genética , RNA Mensageiro/metabolismo , RNA Interferente Pequeno/genética , Fator de Transcrição STAT1/metabolismo , Fator de Transcrição STAT6/metabolismoRESUMO
Interferon-beta is a current treatment for multiple sclerosis (MS). Interferon-beta is thought to exert its therapeutic effects on MS by down-modulating the immune response by multiple potential pathways. Here, we document that treatment of MS patients with interferon beta-1a (Rebif) results in a significant increase in the levels and function of the protein tyrosine phosphatase SHP-1 in PBMCs. SHP-1 is a crucial negative regulator of cytokine signaling, inflammatory gene expression, and CNS demyelination as evidenced in mice deficient in SHP-1. In order to examine the functional significance of SHP-1 induction in MS PBMCs, we analyzed the activity of proinflammatory signaling molecules STAT1, STAT6, and NF-kappaB, which are known SHP-1 targets. Interferon-beta treatment in vivo resulted in decreased NF-kappaB and STAT6 activation and increased STAT1 activation. Further analysis in vitro showed that cultured PBMCs of MS patients and normal subjects had a significant SHP-1 induction following interferon-beta treatment that correlated with decreased NF-kappaB and STAT6 activation. Most importantly, experimental depletion of SHP-1 in cultured PBMCs abolished the anti-inflammatory effects of interferon-beta treatment, indicating that SHP-1 is a predominant mediator of interferon-beta activity. In conclusion, interferon-beta treatment upregulates SHP-1 expression resulting in decreased transcription factor activation and inflammatory gene expression important in MS pathogenesis.
Assuntos
Interferon beta/uso terapêutico , Esclerose Múltipla/tratamento farmacológico , NF-kappa B/metabolismo , Proteína Tirosina Fosfatase não Receptora Tipo 6/metabolismo , Fator de Transcrição STAT1/metabolismo , Fator de Transcrição STAT6/metabolismo , Adulto , Linfócitos B/imunologia , Linfócitos B/metabolismo , Células Cultivadas , Citocinas/sangue , Feminino , Inativação Gênica/imunologia , Humanos , Interferon beta-1a , Células Matadoras Naturais/imunologia , Células Matadoras Naturais/metabolismo , Masculino , Pessoa de Meia-Idade , Esclerose Múltipla/imunologia , NF-kappa B/antagonistas & inibidores , NF-kappa B/imunologia , Proteína Tirosina Fosfatase não Receptora Tipo 6/efeitos dos fármacos , Proteína Tirosina Fosfatase não Receptora Tipo 6/genética , Proteína Tirosina Fosfatase não Receptora Tipo 6/imunologia , RNA Interferente Pequeno/imunologia , RNA Interferente Pequeno/metabolismo , Fator de Transcrição STAT1/agonistas , Fator de Transcrição STAT1/imunologia , Fator de Transcrição STAT6/antagonistas & inibidores , Fator de Transcrição STAT6/imunologia , Linfócitos T/imunologia , Linfócitos T/metabolismoRESUMO
IL-33 is a novel member of the IL-1 cytokine family and a potent inducer of type 2 immunity, as mast cells and Th2 CD4+ T cells respond to IL-33 with the induction of type 2 cytokines such as IL-13. IL-33 mRNA levels are extremely high in the CNS, and CNS glia possess both subunits of the IL-33R, yet whether IL-33 is produced by and affects CNS glia has not been studied. Here, we demonstrate that pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) significantly increase IL-33 mRNA and protein expression in CNS glia. Interestingly, IL-33 was localized to the nucleus of astrocytes. Further, CNS glial and astrocyte-enriched cultures treated with a PAMP followed by an ATP pulse had significantly higher levels of supernatant IL-1beta and IL-33 than cultures receiving any single treatment (PAMP or ATP). Supernatants from PAMP + ATP-treated glia induced the secretion of IL-6, IL-13, and MCP-1 from the MC/9 mast cell line in a manner similar to exogenous recombinant IL-33. Further, IL-33 levels and activity were increased in the brains of mice infected with the neurotropic virus Theiler's murine encephalomyelitis virus. IL-33 also had direct effects on CNS glia, as IL-33 induced various innate immune effectors in CNS glia, and this induction was greatly amplified by IL-33-stimulated mast cells. In conclusion, these results implicate IL-33-producing astrocytes as a potentially critical regulator of innate immune responses in the CNS.