Effect of Adopting the New Race-Free 2021 Chronic Kidney Disease Epidemiology Collaboration Estimated Glomerular Filtration Rate Creatinine Equation on Racial Differences in Kidney Disease Progression Among People With Human Immunodeficiency Virus: An Observational Study.

BACKGROUND: The impact of adopting a race-free estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) creatinine (eGFRcr) equation on racial differences in chronic kidney disease (CKD) progression among people with human immunodeficiency virus (PWH) is unknown. METHODS: We defined eGFR stages using the original race-adjusted Chronic Kidney Disease Epidemiology Collaboration (CKD-EPI) eGFRcr equation and the new race-free CKD-EPI eGFRcr equation. We then estimated 5-year probabilities of transitioning from baseline kidney function to more advanced eGFR stages and examined the association of race (black vs white) with rates of CKD progression using Markov models. RESULTS: With the race-adjusted eGFRcr equation, black participants (n = 31 298) had a lower risk of progressing from eGFR stage 1 to 2 (hazard ratio [HR], 0.77; 95% confidence interval [CI], .73-.82), an equal risk of progressing from stage 2 to 3 (1.00; .92-.07) and a 3-fold risk of progressing from stage 3 to 4 or 5 (3.06; 2.60-3.62), compared with white participants (n = 27 542). When we used the race-free eGFRcr equation, 16% of black participants were reclassified into a more severe eGFR stage at baseline. The reclassified black individuals had a higher prevalence of CKD risk factors than black PWH who were not reclassified. With the race-free eGFRcr equation, black participants had a higher risk of disease progression across all eGFR stages than white participants. CONCLUSIONS: The original eGFRcr equation systematically masked a subgroup of black PWH who are at high-risk of CKD progression. The new race-free eGFRcr equation unmasks these individuals and may allow for earlier detection and management of CKD.

Association of Race and Ethnicity With Initial Prescription of Antiretroviral Therapy Among People With HIV in the US.

Importance: Integrase strand transfer inhibitor (INSTI)-containing antiretroviral therapy (ART) is currently the guideline-recommended first-line treatment for HIV. Delayed prescription of INSTI-containing ART may amplify differences and inequities in health outcomes. Objectives: To estimate racial and ethnic differences in the prescription of INSTI-containing ART among adults newly entering HIV care in the US and to examine variation in these differences over time in relation to changes in treatment guidelines. Design, Setting, and Participants: Retrospective observational study of 42 841 adults entering HIV care from October 12, 2007, when the first INSTI was approved by the US Food and Drug Administration, to April 30, 2019, at more than 200 clinical sites contributing to the North American AIDS Cohort Collaboration on Research and Design. Exposures: Combined race and ethnicity as reported in patient medical records. Main Outcomes and Measures: Probability of initial prescription of ART within 1 month of care entry and probability of being prescribed INSTI-containing ART. Differences among non-Hispanic Black and Hispanic patients compared with non-Hispanic White patients were estimated by calendar year and time period in relation to changes in national guidelines on the timing of treatment initiation and recommended initial treatment regimens. Results: Of 41 263 patients with information on race and ethnicity, 19 378 (47%) as non-Hispanic Black, 6798 (16%) identified as Hispanic, and 13 539 (33%) as non-Hispanic White; 36 394 patients (85%) were male, and the median age was 42 years (IQR, 30 to 51). From 2007-2015, when guidelines recommended treatment initiation based on CD4+ cell count, the probability of ART initiation within 1 month of care entry was 45% among White patients, 45% among Black patients (difference, 0% [95% CI, -1% to 1%]), and 51% among Hispanic patients (difference, 5% [95% CI, 4% to 7%]). From 2016-2019, when guidelines strongly recommended treating all patients regardless of CD4+ cell count, this probability increased to 66% among White patients, 68% among Black patients (difference, 2% [95% CI, -1% to 5%]), and 71% among Hispanic patients (difference, 5% [95% CI, 1% to 9%]). INSTIs were prescribed to 22% of White patients and only 17% of Black patients (difference, -5% [95% CI, -7% to -4%]) and 17% of Hispanic patients (difference, -5% [95% CI, -7% to -3%]) from 2009-2014, when INSTIs were approved as initial therapy but were not yet guideline recommended. Significant differences persisted for Black patients (difference, -6% [95% CI, -8% to -4%]) but not for Hispanic patients (difference, -1% [95% CI, -4% to 2%]) compared with White patients from 2014-2017, when INSTI-containing ART was a guideline-recommended option for initial therapy; differences by race and ethnicity were not statistically significant from 2017-2019, when INSTI-containing ART was the single recommended initial therapy for most people with HIV. Conclusions and Relevance: Among adults entering HIV care within a large US research consortium from 2007-2019, the 1-month probability of ART prescription was not significantly different across most races and ethnicities, although Black and Hispanic patients were significantly less likely than White patients to receive INSTI-containing ART in earlier time periods but not after INSTIs became guideline-recommended initial therapy for most people with HIV. Additional research is needed to understand the underlying racial and ethnic differences and whether the differences in prescribing were associated with clinical outcomes.

Risk of HCC With Hepatitis B Viremia Among HIV/HBV-Coinfected Persons in North America.

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Chronic HBV is the predominant cause of HCC worldwide. Although HBV coinfection is common in HIV, the determinants of HCC in HIV/HBV coinfection are poorly characterized. We examined the predictors of HCC in a multicohort study of individuals coinfected with HIV/HBV. APPROACH AND RESULTS: We included persons coinfected with HIV/HBV within 22 cohorts of the North American AIDS Cohort Collaboration on Research and Design (1995-2016). First occurrence of HCC was verified by medical record review and/or cancer registry. We used multivariable Cox regression to determine adjusted HRs (aHRs [95% CIs]) of factors assessed at cohort entry (age, sex, race, body mass index), ever during observation (heavy alcohol use, HCV), or time-updated (HIV RNA, CD4+ percentage, diabetes mellitus, HBV DNA). Among 8,354 individuals coinfected with HIV/HBV (median age, 43 years; 93% male; 52.4% non-White), 115 HCC cases were diagnosed over 65,392 person-years (incidence rate, 1.8 [95% CI, 1.5-2.1] events/1,000 person-years). Risk factors for HCC included age 40-49 years (aHR, 1.97 [1.22-3.17]), age ≥50 years (aHR, 2.55 [1.49-4.35]), HCV coinfection (aHR, 1.61 [1.07-2.40]), and heavy alcohol use (aHR, 1.52 [1.04-2.23]), while time-updated HIV RNA >500 copies/mL (aHR, 0.90 [0.56-1.43]) and time-updated CD4+ percentage <14% (aHR, 1.03 [0.56-1.90]) were not. The risk of HCC was increased with time-updated HBV DNA >200 IU/mL (aHR, 2.22 [1.42-3.47]) and was higher with each 1.0 log10 IU/mL increase in time-updated HBV DNA (aHR, 1.18 [1.05-1.34]). HBV suppression with HBV-active antiretroviral therapy (ART) for ≥1 year significantly reduced HCC risk (aHR, 0.42 [0.24-0.73]). CONCLUSION: Individuals coinfected with HIV/HBV on ART with detectable HBV viremia remain at risk for HCC. To gain maximal benefit from ART for HCC prevention, sustained HBV suppression is necessary.

Do contemporary antiretrovirals increase the risk of end-stage liver disease? Signals from patients starting therapy in the North American AIDS Cohort Collaboration on Research and Design.

PURPOSE: Despite effective antiretroviral therapy, rates of end-stage liver disease (ESLD) remain high. It is not clear whether contemporary antiretrovirals contribute to the risk of ESLD. METHODS: We included patients from cohorts with validated ESLD data in the North American AIDS Cohort Collaboration on Research and Design. Patients had to initiate antiretroviral therapy after 1 January 2004 with a nucleos(t)ide backbone of either abacavir/lamivudine or tenofovir/emtricitabine and a contemporary third (anchor) drug. Patients were followed until a first ESLD event, death, end of a cohort's ESLD validation period, loss to follow-up or 31 December 2015. We estimated associations between cumulative exposure to each drug and ESLD using a hierarchical Bayesian survival model with weakly informative prior distributions. RESULTS: Among 10 564 patients included from 12 cohorts, 62 had an ESLD event. Of the nine anchor drugs, boosted protease inhibitors atazanavir and darunavir had the strongest signals for ESLD, with increasing hazard ratios (HR) and narrowing credible intervals (CrI), from a prior HR of 1.5 (95% CrI 0.32-7.1) per 5 year's exposure to posterior HRs respectively of 1.8 (95% CrI 0.82-3.9) and 2.0 (95% CrI 0.86-4.7). Both backbones and efavirenz showed no signal. Hepatitis C coinfection was the most important covariate risk factor (HR 4.4, 95% CrI 2.6-7.0). CONCLUSIONS: While contemporary antiretrovirals pose less risk for ESLD than hepatitis coinfection, atazanavir and darunavir had a toxicity signal. We show how hierarchical Bayesian modelling can be used to detect toxicity signals in cohort event monitoring data even with complex treatments and few events.

Current and Past Immunodeficiency Are Associated With Higher Hospitalization Rates Among Persons on Virologically Suppressive Antiretroviral Therapy for up to 11 Years.

BACKGROUND: Persons with human immunodeficiency virus (PWH) with persistently low CD4 counts despite efficacious antiretroviral therapy could have higher hospitalization risk. METHODS: In 6 US and Canadian clinical cohorts, PWH with virologic suppression for ≥1 year in 2005-2015 were followed until virologic failure, loss to follow-up, death, or study end. Stratified by early (years 2-5) and long-term (years 6-11) suppression and lowest presuppression CD4 count <200 and ≥200 cells/µL, Poisson regression models estimated hospitalization incidence rate ratios (aIRRs) comparing patients by time-updated CD4 count category, adjusted for cohort, age, gender, calendar year, suppression duration, and lowest presuppression CD4 count. RESULTS: The 6997 included patients (19 980 person-years) were 81% cisgender men and 40% white. Among patients with lowest presuppression CD4 count <200 cells/µL (44%), patients with current CD4 count 200-350 vs >500 cells/µL had aIRRs of 1.44 during early suppression (95% confidence interval [CI], 1.01-2.06), and 1.67 (95% CI, 1.03-2.72) during long-term suppression. Among patients with lowest presuppression CD4 count ≥200 (56%), patients with current CD4 351-500 vs >500 cells/µL had an aIRR of 1.22 (95% CI, .93-1.60) during early suppression and 2.09 (95% CI, 1.18-3.70) during long-term suppression. CONCLUSIONS: Virologically suppressed patients with lower CD4 counts experienced higher hospitalization rates and could potentially benefit from targeted clinical management strategies.

Hospitalization Rates and Causes Among Persons With HIV in the United States and Canada, 2005-2015.

BACKGROUND: To assess the possible impact of antiretroviral therapy improvements, aging, and comorbidities, we examined trends in all-cause and cause-specific hospitalization rates among persons with HIV (PWH) from 2005 to 2015. METHODS: In 6 clinical cohorts, we followed PWH in care (≥1 outpatient CD4 count or HIV load [VL] every 12 months) and categorized ICD codes of primary discharge diagnoses using modified Clinical Classifications Software. Poisson regression estimated hospitalization rate ratios for calendar time trends, adjusted for demographics, HIV risk factor, and annually updated age, CD4, and VL. RESULTS: Among 28 057 patients (125 724 person-years), from 2005 to 2015, the median CD4 increased from 389 to 580 cells/µL and virologic suppression from 55% to 85% of patients. Unadjusted all-cause hospitalization rates decreased from 22.3 per 100 person-years in 2005 (95% confidence interval [CI], 20.6-24.1) to 13.0 in 2015 (95% CI, 12.2-14.0). Unadjusted rates decreased for almost all diagnostic categories. Adjusted rates decreased for all-cause, cardiovascular, and AIDS-defining conditions, increased for non-AIDS-defining infection, and were stable for most other categories. CONCLUSIONS: Among PWH with increasing CD4 counts and viral suppression, unadjusted hospitalization rates decreased for all-cause and most cause-specific hospitalizations, despite the potential effects of aging, comorbidities, and cumulative exposure to HIV and antiretrovirals.

Risk of Incident Diabetes Mellitus, Weight Gain, and Their Relationships With Integrase Inhibitor-Based Initial Antiretroviral Therapy Among Persons With Human Immunodeficiency Virus in the United States and Canada.

BACKGROUND: Integrase strand transfer inhibitor (INSTI)-based combination antiretroviral therapy (cART) is associated with greater weight gain among persons with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), though metabolic consequences, such as diabetes mellitus (DM), are unclear. We examined the impact of initial cART regimen and weight on incident DM in a large North American HIV cohort (NA-ACCORD). METHODS: cART-naive adults (≥18 years) initiating INSTI-, protease inhibitor (PI)-, or nonnucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor (NNRTI)-based regimens from January 2007 through December 2017 who had weight measured 12 (±6) months after treatment initiation contributed time until clinical DM, virologic failure, cART regimen switch, administrative close, death, or loss to follow-up. Multivariable Cox regression yielded adjusted hazard ratios (HRs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) for incident DM by cART class. Mediation analyses, with 12-month weight as mediator, similarly adjusted for all covariates. RESULTS: Among 22 884 eligible individuals, 47% started NNRTI-, 30% PI-, and 23% INSTI-based cART with median follow-up of 3.0, 2.3, and 1.6 years, respectively. Overall, 722 (3%) developed DM. Persons starting INSTIs vs NNRTIs had incident DM risk (HR, 1.17 [95% CI, .92-1.48]), similar to PI vs NNRTI initiators (HR, 1.27 [95% CI, 1.07-1.51]). This effect was most pronounced for raltegravir (HR, 1.42 [95% CI, 1.06-1.91]) vs NNRTI initiators. The INSTI-DM association was attenuated (HR, 1.03 [95% CI, .71-1.49] vs NNRTIs) when accounting for 12-month weight. CONCLUSIONS: Initiating first cART regimens with INSTIs or PIs vs NNRTIs may confer greater risk of DM, likely mediated through weight gain.

Timing of Antiretroviral Therapy Initiation and Risk of Cancer Among Persons Living With Human Immunodeficiency Virus.

BACKGROUND: Persons living with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV; PLWH) experience a high burden of cancer. It remains unknown which cancer types are reduced in PLWH with earlier initiation of antiretroviral therapy (ART). METHODS: We evaluated AIDS-free, ART-naive PLWH during 1996-2014 from 22 cohorts participating in the North American AIDS Cohort Collaboration on Research and Design. PLWH were followed from first observed CD4 of 350-500 cells/µL (baseline) until incident cancer, death, lost-to-follow-up, or December 2014. Outcomes included 6 cancer groups and 5 individual cancers that were confirmed by chart review or cancer registry linkage. We evaluated the effect of earlier (in the first 6 months after baseline) versus deferred ART initiation on cancer risk. Marginal structural models were used with inverse probability weighting to account for time-dependent confounding and informative right-censoring, with weights informed by subject's age, sex, cohort, baseline year, race/ethnicity, HIV transmission risk, smoking, viral hepatitis, CD4, and AIDS diagnoses. RESULTS: Protective results for earlier ART were found for any cancer (adjusted hazard ratio [HR] 0.57; 95% confidence interval [CI], .37-.86), AIDS-defining cancers (HR 0.23; 95% CI, .11-.49), any virus-related cancer (HR 0.30; 95% CI, .16-.54), Kaposi sarcoma (HR 0.25; 95% CI, .10-.61), and non-Hodgkin lymphoma (HR 0.22; 95% CI, .06-.73). By 15 years, there was also an observed reduced risk with earlier ART for virus-related NADCs (0.6% vs 2.3%; adjusted risk difference -1.6; 95% CI, -2.8, -.5). CONCLUSIONS: Earlier ART initiation has potential to reduce the burden of virus-related cancers in PLWH but not non-AIDS-defining cancers (NADCs) without known or suspected viral etiology.

Association of Immunosuppression and Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) Viremia With Anal Cancer Risk in Persons Living With HIV in the United States and Canada.

BACKGROUND: People living with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV; PLWH) have a markedly elevated anal cancer risk, largely due to loss of immunoregulatory control of oncogenic human papillomavirus infection. To better understand anal cancer development and prevention, we determined whether recent, past, cumulative, or nadir/peak CD4+ T-cell count (CD4) and/or HIV-1 RNA level (HIV RNA) best predict anal cancer risk. METHODS: We studied 102 777 PLWH during 1996-2014 from 21 cohorts participating in the North American AIDS Cohort Collaboration on Research and Design. Using demographics-adjusted, cohort-stratified Cox models, we assessed associations between anal cancer risk and various time-updated CD4 and HIV RNA measures, including cumulative and nadir/peak measures during prespecified moving time windows. We compared models using the Akaike information criterion. RESULTS: Cumulative and nadir/peak CD4 or HIV RNA measures from approximately 8.5 to 4.5 years in the past were generally better predictors for anal cancer risk than their corresponding more recent measures. However, the best model included CD4 nadir (ie, the lowest CD4) from approximately 8.5 years to 6 months in the past (hazard ratio [HR] for <50 vs ≥500 cells/µL, 13.4; 95% confidence interval [CI], 3.5-51.0) and proportion of time CD4 <200 cells/µL from approximately 8.5 to 4.5 years in the past (a cumulative measure; HR for 100% vs 0%, 3.1; 95% CI, 1.5-6.6). CONCLUSIONS: Our results are consistent with anal cancer promotion by severe, prolonged HIV-induced immunosuppression. Nadir and cumulative CD4 may represent useful markers for identifying PLWH at higher anal cancer risk.

The involvement of polyamine uptake and synthesis pathways in the proliferation of neonatal astrocytes.

Polyamines (PAs), such as spermidine (SPD) and spermine (SPM), are essential to promote cell growth, survival, proliferation, and longevity. In the adult central nervous system (CNS), SPD and SPM are accumulated predominantly in healthy adult glial cells where PA synthesis is not present. To date, the accumulation and biosynthesis of PAs in developing astrocytes are not well understood. The purpose of the present study was to determine the contribution of uptake and/or synthesis of PAs using proliferation of neonatal astrocytes as an endpoint. We inhibited synthesis of PAs using α-difluoromethylornithine (DFMO; an inhibitor of the PA biosynthetic enzyme ornithine decarboxylase (ODC)) and inhibited uptake of PAs using trimer44NMe (PTI; a novel polyamine transport inhibitor). DFMO, but not PTI alone, blocked proliferation, suggesting that PA biosynthesis was present. Furthermore, exogenous administration of SPD rescued cell proliferation when PA synthesis was blocked by DFMO. When both synthesis and uptake of PAs were inhibited (DFMO + PTI), exogenous SPD no longer supported proliferation. These data indicate that neonatal astrocytes synthesize sufficient quantities of PAs de novo to support cell proliferation, but are also able to import exogenous PAs. This suggests that the PA uptake mechanism is present in both neonates as well as in adults and can support cell proliferation in neonatal astrocytes when ODC is blocked.

One Size Fits (n)One: The Influence of Sex, Age, and Sexual Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) Acquisition Risk on Racial/Ethnic Disparities in the HIV Care Continuum in the United States.

BACKGROUND: The United States National HIV/AIDS Strategy established goals to reduce disparities in retention in human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) care, antiretroviral therapy (ART) use, and viral suppression. The impact of sex, age, and sexual HIV acquisition risk (ie, heterosexual vs same-sex contact) on the magnitude of HIV-related racial/ethnic disparities is not well understood. METHODS: We estimated age-stratified racial/ethnic differences in the 5-year restricted mean percentage of person-time spent in care, on ART, and virally suppressed among 19 521 women (21.4%), men who have sex with men (MSM; 59.0%), and men who have sex with women (MSW; 19.6%) entering HIV care in the North American AIDS Cohort Collaboration on Research and Design between 2004 and 2014. RESULTS: Among women aged 18-29 years, whites spent 12.0% (95% confidence interval [CI], 1.1%-20.2%), 9.2% (95% CI, .4%-20.4%), and 13.5% (95% CI, 2.7%-22.5%) less person-time in care, on ART, and virally suppressed, respectively, than Hispanics. Black MSM aged ≥50 years spent 6.3% (95% CI, 1.3%-11.7%), 11.0% (95% CI, 4.6%-18.1%), and 9.7% (95% CI, 3.6%-16.8%) less person-time in these stages, respectively, than white MSM ≥50 years of age. Among MSM aged 40-49 years, blacks spent 9.8% (95% CI, 2.4%-16.5%) and 11.9% (95% CI, 3.8%-19.3%) less person-time on ART and virally suppressed, respectively, than whites. CONCLUSIONS: Racial/ethnic differences in HIV care persist in specific populations defined by sex, age, and sexual HIV acquisition risk. Clinical and public health interventions that jointly target these demographic factors are needed.

Life-Expectancy Disparities Among Adults With HIV in the United States and Canada: The Impact of a Reduction in Drug- and Alcohol-Related Deaths Using the Lives Saved Simulation Model.

Improvements in life expectancy among people living with human immunodeficiency virus (PLWH) receiving antiretroviral treatment in the United States and Canada might differ among key populations. Given the difference in substance use among key populations and the current opioid epidemic, drug- and alcohol-related deaths might be contributing to the disparities in life expectancy. We sought to estimate life expectancy at age 20 years in key populations (and their comparison groups) in 3 time periods (2004-2007, 2008-2011, and 2012-2015) and the potential increase in expected life expectancy with a simulated 20% reduction in drug- and alcohol-related deaths using the novel Lives Saved Simulation model. Among 92,289 PLWH, life expectancy increased in all key populations and comparison groups from 2004-2007 to 2012-2015. Disparities in survival of approximately a decade persisted among black versus white men who have sex with men and people with (vs. without) a history of injection drug use. A 20% reduction in drug- and alcohol-related mortality would have the greatest life-expectancy benefit for black men who have sex with men, white women, and people with a history of injection drug use. Our findings suggest that preventing drug- and alcohol-related deaths among PLWH could narrow disparities in life expectancy among some key populations, but other causes of death must be addressed to further narrow the disparities.

Cancer-Attributable Mortality Among People With Treated Human Immunodeficiency Virus Infection in North America.

BACKGROUND: Cancer remains an important cause of morbidity and mortality in people with human immunodeficiency virus (PWHIV) on effective antiretroviral therapy (ART). Estimates of cancer-attributable mortality can inform public health efforts. METHODS: We evaluated 46956 PWHIV receiving ART in North American HIV cohorts (1995-2009). Using information on incident cancers and deaths, we calculated population-attributable fractions (PAFs), estimating the proportion of deaths due to cancer. Calculations were based on proportional hazards models adjusted for age, sex, race, HIV risk group, calendar year, cohort, CD4 count, and viral load. RESULTS: There were 1997 incident cancers and 8956 deaths during 267145 person-years of follow-up, and 11.9% of decedents had a prior cancer. An estimated 9.8% of deaths were attributable to cancer (cancer-attributable mortality rate 327 per 100000 person-years). PAFs were 2.6% for AIDS-defining cancers (ADCs, including non-Hodgkin lymphoma, 2.0% of deaths) and 7.1% for non-AIDS-defining cancers (NADCs: lung cancer, 2.3%; liver cancer, 0.9%). PAFs for NADCs were higher in males and increased strongly with age, reaching 12.5% in PWHIV aged 55+ years. Mortality rates attributable to ADCs and NADCs were highest for PWHIV with CD4 counts <100 cells/mm3. PAFs for NADCs increased during 1995-2009, reaching 10.1% in 2006-2009. CONCLUSIONS: Approximately 10% of deaths in PWHIV prescribed ART during 1995-2009 were attributable to cancer, but this fraction increased over time. A large proportion of cancer-attributable deaths were associated with non-Hodgkin lymphoma, lung cancer, and liver cancer. Deaths due to NADCs will likely grow in importance as AIDS mortality declines and PWHIV age.

First Occurrence of Diabetes, Chronic Kidney Disease, and Hypertension Among North American HIV-Infected Adults, 2000-2013.

Background: There remains concern regarding the occurrence of noncommunicable diseases (NCDs) among individuals aging with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), but few studies have described whether disparities between demographic subgroups are present among individuals on antiretroviral therapy (ART) with access to care. Methods: We assessed the first documented occurrence of type 2 diabetes mellitus (DM), chronic kidney disease (CKD), and treated hypertension (HTN) by age, sex, and race within the North American AIDS Cohort Collaboration on Research and Design (NA-ACCORD). HIV-infected adults (≥18 years) who initiated ART were observed for first NCD occurrence between 1 January 2000 and 31 December 2013. Cumulative incidences as of age 70 were estimated accounting for the competing risk of death; Poisson regression was used to compare rates of NCD occurrence by demographic subgroup. Results: We included >50000 persons with >250000 person-years of follow-up. Median follow-up was 4.7 (interquartile range, 2.4­8.1) years. Rates of first occurrence (per 100 person-years) were 1.2 for DM, 0.6 for CKD, and 2.6 for HTN. Relative to non-black women, the cumulative incidences were increased in black women (68% vs 51% for HTN, 52% vs 41% for DM, and 38% vs 35% for CKD; all P < .001); this disparity was also found among men (73% vs 60% for HTN, 44% vs 34% for DM, and 30% vs 25% for CKD; all P < .001). Conclusions: Racial disparities in the occurrence of DM, CKD, and HTN emphasize the need for prevention and treatment options for these HIV populations receiving care in North America.

Late HIV Testing in a Cohort of HIV-Infected Patients in Puerto Rico.

OBJECTIVE: Late HIV testing (LT), defined as receiving an AIDS diagnosis within a year of one's first positive HIV test, is associated with higher HIV transmission, lower HAART effectiveness, and worse outcomes. Latinos represent 36% of LT in the US, yet research concerning LT among HIV cases in Puerto Rico is scarce. METHODS: Multivariable logistic regression analysis was used to identify factors associated with LT, and a Cochran‒Armitage test was used to determine LT trends in an HIV-infected cohort followed at a clinic in Puerto Rico specialized in the management and treatment of HIV. RESULTS: From 2000 to 2011, 47% of eligible patients were late testers, with lower median CD4 counts (54 vs. 420 cells/mm3) and higher median HIV viral load counts (253,680 vs. 23,700 copies/mL) than non-LT patients. LT prevalence decreased significantly, from 47% in 2000 to 37% in 2011. In a mutually adjusted logistic regression model, males, older age at enrollment and past history of IDU significantly increased LT odds, whereas having a history of amphetamine use decreased LT odds. When the data were stratified by mode of transmission, it became apparent that only the category men who have sex with men (MSM) saw a significant reduction in the proportion of LT, falling from 67% in 2000 to 33% in 2011. CONCLUSION: These results suggest a gap in early HIV detection in Puerto Rico, a gap that decreased only among MSM. An evaluation of the manner in which current HIV-testing guidelines are implemented on the island is needed.

End-stage renal disease among HIV-infected adults in North America.

BACKGROUND: Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-infected adults, particularly those of black race, are at high-risk for end-stage renal disease (ESRD), but contributing factors are evolving. We hypothesized that improvements in HIV treatment have led to declines in risk of ESRD, particularly among HIV-infected blacks. METHODS: Using data from the North American AIDS Cohort Collaboration for Research and Design from January 2000 to December 2009, we validated 286 incident ESRD cases using abstracted medical evidence of dialysis (lasting >6 months) or renal transplant. A total of 38 354 HIV-infected adults aged 18-80 years contributed 159 825 person-years (PYs). Age- and sex-standardized incidence ratios (SIRs) were estimated by race. Poisson regression was used to identify predictors of ESRD. RESULTS: HIV-infected ESRD cases were more likely to be of black race, have diabetes mellitus or hypertension, inject drugs, and/or have a prior AIDS-defining illness. The overall SIR was 3.2 (95% confidence interval [CI], 2.8-3.6) but was significantly higher among black patients (4.5 [95% CI, 3.9-5.2]). ESRD incidence declined from 532 to 303 per 100 000 PYs and 138 to 34 per 100 000 PYs over the time period for blacks and nonblacks, respectively, coincident with notable increases in both the prevalence of viral suppression and the prevalence of ESRD risk factors including diabetes mellitus, hypertension, and hepatitis C virus coinfection. CONCLUSIONS: The risk of ESRD remains high among HIV-infected individuals in care but is declining with improvements in virologic suppression. HIV-infected black persons continue to comprise the majority of cases, as a result of higher viral loads, comorbidities, and genetic susceptibility.

Late HIV Testing in a Cohort of HIV-Infected Patients in Puerto Rico.

OBJECTIVE: Late HIV testing (LT), defined as receiving an AIDS diagnosis within a year of one's first positive HIV test, is associated with higher HIV transmission, lower HAART effectiveness, and worse outcomes. Latinos represent 36% of LT in the US, yet research concerning LT among HIV cases in Puerto Rico is scarce. METHODS: Multivariable logistic regression analysis was used to identify factors associated with LT, and a Cochran‒Armitage test was used to determine LT trends in an HIV-infected cohort followed at a clinic in Puerto Rico specialized in the management and treatment of HIV. RESULTS: From 2000 to 2011, 47% of eligible patients were late testers, with lower median CD4 counts (54 vs. 420 cells/mm3) and higher median HIV viral load counts (253,680 vs. 23,700 copies/mL) than non-LT patients. LT prevalence decreased significantly, from 47% in 2000 to 37% in 2011. In a mutually adjusted logistic regression model, males, older age at enrollment and past history of IDU significantly increased LT odds, whereas having a history of amphetamine use decreased LT odds. When the data were stratified by mode of transmission, it became apparent that only the category men who have sex with men (MSM) saw a significant reduction in the proportion of LT, falling from 67% in 2000 to 33% in 2011. CONCLUSION: These results suggest a gap in early HIV detection in Puerto Rico, a gap that decreased only among MSM. An evaluation of the manner in which current HIV-testing guidelines are implemented on the island is needed.

Factors associated with tender point count in Puerto Ricans with fibromyalgia syndrome.

OBJECTIVE: To examine the factors associated with fibromyalgia syndrome (FMS) tender point count (TPC) in a group of Hispanic patients from Puerto Rico. METHODS: A cross-sectional study was performed in 144 FMS patients as determined using American College of Rheumatology [ACR] classification). Sociodemographic features, clinical manifestations, comorbidities, and pharmacologic agents were determined during the study visit. Tender points were assessed as described in the ACR classification for FMS. A t-test and one-way ANOVA test were used to examine the relationships between continuous, dichotomous, and nominal variables. RESULTS: The mean (standard deviation, [SD]) age of the FMS patients in this study was 50.2 (9.9) years; 95.1% were females. The mean (SD) TPC was 15.0 (4.7). Dysmenorrhea, the sicca syndrome, subjective swelling, increased urinary frequency, shortness of breath, headache, constipation, paresthesia, cognitive dysfunction, arthralgia, tiredness, morning stiffness, depression, and anxiety were associated with higher TPC. No associations were seen between socio-demographic features and FMS pharmacologic therapies. CONCLUSION: In this group of Puerto Ricans with FMS, TPC was associated with several FMS symptoms and comorbidities. This study suggests that TPC may be a simple and effective tool for assessing disease severity in FMS patients.

Association of hand or knee osteoarthritis with diabetes mellitus in a population of Hispanics from Puerto Rico.

BACKGROUND: Although a higher prevalence of osteoarthritis (OA) has been reported among diabetes mellitus (DM) patients, inconsistencies and limitations of observational studies have precluded a conclusive association. OBJECTIVE: The objective of this study was to evaluate the association of hand or knee OA with DM in a population of Hispanics from Puerto Rico. METHODS: A cross-sectional study was performed in 202 subjects (100 adult DM patients as per the National Diabetes Data Group Classification and 102 nondiabetic subjects). Osteoarthritis of hand and knee was ascertained using the American College of Rheumatology classification criteria. Sociodemographic characteristics, health-related behaviors, comorbidities, pharmacotherapy, and DM clinical manifestations were determined. Multivariable logistic regression was used to evaluate the association of DM with hand or knee OA and to evaluate factors associated with hand or knee OA among DM patients. RESULTS: The mean (SD) age for DM patients was 51.6 (13.1) years; 64.0% were females. The mean (SD) DM duration was 11.0 (10.4) years. The prevalence of OA in patients with DM and nondiabetic subjects was 49.0% and 26.5%, respectively (P < 0.01). In the multivariable analysis, patients with DM had 2.18 the odds of having OA when compared with nondiabetic subjects (95% confidence interval [CI], 1.12-4.24). In a subanalysis among DM patients, female patients were more likely to have hand or knee OA (odds ratio [95% CI], 5.06 [1.66-15.66]), whereas patients who did not use insulin alone for DM therapy were more likely to have OA (odds ratio [95% CI], 4.44 [1.22-16.12]). CONCLUSIONS: In this population of Hispanics from Puerto Rico, DM patients were more likely to have OA of hands or knees than were nondiabetic subjects. This association was retained in multivariable models accounting for established risk factors for OA. Among DM patients, females were at greater risk for OA, whereas the use of insulin was negatively associated.

Rheumatology practice profiles in teaching and community settings in Puerto Rico: implications to subspecialty training.

BACKGROUND: University-based fellowship training programs may not always provide the required experience to manage common and less complex medical conditions usually seen at the community setting. Few studies have addressed this concern. OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study was to compare the demographic features, diagnoses, and rheumatologic procedures in patients seen at the University of Puerto Rico Medical Sciences Campus Adult Rheumatology Training Program practice and 3 community-based rheumatology practices in Puerto Rico. METHODS: Claim forms submitted to health care insurance companies in 2007 from the university and community practices were evaluated. Demographic parameters, primary diagnoses (per International Classification of Diseases, Ninth Revision), medical visits, and rheumatologic procedures (per Current Procedural Terminology 4) were examined. Variables were analyzed by χ and Student t tests. RESULTS: A total of 11,373 claim forms were reviewed: 1952 from the university setting and 9421 from the community-based practices. Younger age and female sex were more common in visits from the university-based setting. Autoimmune diseases were reported more commonly at the university setting (65.3% vs 37.6%, P < 0.001). Conversely, osteoarthritis (24.4% vs 9.8%, P < 0.001), fibromyalgia syndrome (7.4% vs 1.9, P < 0.001), and regional rheumatic pain syndromes (7.2% vs 1.4%, P < 0.001) were seen more frequently at community practices. Hospital/emergency room visits (11.8% vs 0.3%, P < 0.001) were more frequent at the university setting, whereas joint (13.3% vs 2.9%, P < 0.001) and periarticular injections (6.2% vs 1.7%, P < 0.001) were performed more frequently at the community practices. CONCLUSIONS: Several differences were found in the profile of demographic parameters, diagnoses, medical visits, and rheumatologic procedures between patients seen at the University of Puerto Rico Medical Sciences Campus rheumatology practice and 3 community-based practices. Efforts may be required to diversify and increase the exposure of rheumatology fellows to patients with conditions commonly seen at the community setting.