Tribbles 3 regulates protein turnover in mouse skeletal muscle.

Skeletal muscle atrophy is associated with a disruption in protein turnover involving increased protein degradation and suppressed protein synthesis. Although it has been well studied that the IGF-1/PI3K/Akt pathway plays an essential role in the regulation of the protein turnover, molecule(s) that triggers the change in protein turnover still remains to be elucidated. TRB3 has been shown to inhibit Akt through direct binding. In this study, we hypothesized that TRB3 in mouse skeletal muscle negatively regulates protein turnover via the disruption of Akt and its downstream molecules. Muscle-specific TRB3 transgenic (TRB3TG) mice had decreased muscle mass and fiber size, resulting in impaired muscle function. We also found that protein synthesis rate and signaling molecules, mTOR and S6K1, were significantly reduced in TRB3TG mice, whereas the protein breakdown pathway was significantly activated. In contrast, TRB3 knockout mice showed increased muscle mass and had an increase in protein synthesis rate, but decreases in FoxOs, atrogin-1, and MuRF-1. These findings indicate that TRB3 regulates protein synthesis and breakdown via the Akt/mTOR/FoxO pathways.

MicroRNA-155 deletion promotes tumorigenesis in the azoxymethane-dextran sulfate sodium model of colon cancer.

Clinical studies have linked microRNA-155 (miR-155) expression in the tumor microenvironment to poor prognosis. However, whether miR-155 upregulation is predictive of a pro- or antitumorigenic response is unclear, as the limited preclinical data available remain controversial. We examined miR-155 expression in tumor tissue from colon cancer patients. Furthermore, we investigated the role of this microRNA in proliferation and apoptosis, inflammatory processes, immune cell populations, and transforming growth factor-ß/SMAD signaling in a chemically induced (azoxymethane-dextran sulfate sodium) mouse model of colitis-associated colon cancer. We found a higher expression of miR-155 in the tumor region than in nontumor colon tissue of patients with colon cancer. Deletion of miR-155 in mice resulted in a greater number of polyps/adenomas, an increased symptom severity score, a higher grade of epithelial dysplasia, and a decrease in survival. Surprisingly, these findings were associated with an increase in apoptosis in the normal mucosa, but there was no change in proliferation. The protumorigenic effects of miR-155 deletion do not appear to be driven solely by dysregulation of inflammation, as both genotypes had relatively similar levels of inflammatory mediators. The enhanced tumorigenic response in miR-155(-/-) mice was associated with alterations in macrophages and neutrophils, as markers for these populations were decreased and increased, respectively. Furthermore, we demonstrated a greater activation of the transforming growth factor-ß/SMAD pathway in miR-155(-/-) mice, which was correlated with the increased tumorigenesis. Given the multiple targets of miR-155, careful evaluation of its role in tumorigenesis is necessary prior to any consideration of its potential as a biomarker and/or therapeutic target in colon cancer.

High-fat diets rich in saturated fat protect against azoxymethane/dextran sulfate sodium-induced colon cancer.

High-fat-diet (HFD) consumption is associated with colon cancer risk. However, little is known about how the lipid composition of a HFD can influence prooncogenic processes. We examined the effects of three HFDs differing in the percentage of total calories from saturated fat (SF) (6, 12, and 24% of total caloric intake), but identical in total fat (40%), and a commercially available Western diet (26 and 41% saturated and total fat, respectively) on colon cancer development using the azoxymethane (AOM)/dextran sulfate sodium (DSS) murine model. A second dose-response experiment was performed using diets supplemented with the saturated-fatty-acid (SFA)-rich coconut oil. In experiment 1, we found an inverse association between SF content and tumor burden. Furthermore, increased SF content was associated with reduced inflammation, increased apoptosis, and decreased proliferation. The second dose-response experiment was performed to test whether this effect may be attributed to the SF content of the diets. Consistent with the initial experiment, we found that high SF content was protective, at least in male mice; there was a decrease in mortality in mice consuming the highest concentration of SFAs. To explore a potential mechanism for these findings, we examined colonic mucin 2 (Muc2) protein content and found that the HFDs with the highest SF content had the greatest concentration of Muc2. Our data suggest that high dietary SF is protective in the AOM/DSS model of colon cancer, which may be due, at least in part, to the ability of SF to maintain intestinal barrier integrity through increased colonic Muc2.

Tribbles 3 inhibits brown adipocyte differentiation and function by suppressing insulin signaling.

Recent studies have demonstrated that adult humans have substantial amounts of functioning brown adipose tissue (BAT). Since BAT has been implicated as an anti-obese and anti-diabetic tissue, it is important to understand the signaling molecules that regulate BAT function. There has been a link between insulin signaling and BAT metabolism as deletion or pharmaceutical inhibition of insulin signaling impairs BAT differentiation and function. Tribbles 3 (TRB3) is a pseudo kinase that has been shown to regulate metabolism and insulin signaling in multiple tissues but the role of TRB3 in BAT has not been studied. In this study, we found that TRB3 expression was present in BAT and overexpression of TRB3 in brown preadipocytes impaired differentiation and decreased expression of BAT markers. Furthermore, TRB3 overexpression resulted in significantly lower oxygen consumption rates for basal and proton leakage, indicating decreased BAT activity. Based on previous studies showing that deletion or pharmaceutical inhibition of insulin signaling impairs BAT differentiation and function, we assessed insulin signaling in brown preadipocytes and BAT in vivo. Overexpression of TRB3 in cells impaired insulin-stimulated IRS1 and Akt phosphorylation, whereas TRB3KO mice displayed improved IRS1 and Akt phosphorylation. Finally, deletion of IRS1 abolished the function of TRB3 to regulate BAT differentiation and metabolism. These data demonstrate that TRB3 inhibits insulin signaling in BAT, resulting in impaired differentiation and function.

Role of microRNAs in resveratrol-mediated mitigation of colitis-associated tumorigenesis in Apc(Min/+) mice.

The pleiotropic effects of resveratrol include anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and anticancer activities, and thus unique possibilities exist to explore mechanistic pathways of chemoprevention. The aim of this study was to investigate the role of microRNA (miRNA) alterations induced by resveratrol in the context of chemopreventive mechanisms against dextran sodium sulfate (DSS)-induced colitis-associated tumorigenesis in the Apc(Min/+) mouse. To that end, Apc(Min/+) mice were exposed to 2% DSS to enhance intestinal inflammation and polyp development. Concurrently, mice received either vehicle or resveratrol treatment via oral gavage for 5 weeks. Interestingly, treatment of DSS-exposed mice with resveratrol resulted in decreased number and size of polyps, fewer histologic signs of cell damage, and decreased proliferating epithelial cells in intestinal mucosa compared with vehicle. Resveratrol treatment dramatically reversed the effects of DSS on the numbers of specific inflammatory CD4(+) T cells, CD8(+) T cells, B cells, natural killer T cells, and myeloid-derived suppressor cells in mesenteric lymph nodes. Resveratrol treatment also decreased interleukin-6 (IL-6) and tumor necrosis factor-α protein levels and reduced IL-6 and cyclooxygenase-2 mRNA expression. Microarray analysis revealed 104 miRNAs exhibiting >1.5-fold differences in expression in the intestinal tissue of resveratrol-treated mice. Among them, two miRNAs with anti-inflammatory properties, miRNA-101b and miRNA-455, were validated to be upregulated with resveratrol treatment by reverse-transcription polymerase chain reaction. Pathway analysis revealed that numerous differentially regulated miRNAs targeted mRNAs associated with inflammatory processes with known roles in intestinal tumorigenesis. These results suggest that resveratrol mediates anti-inflammatory properties and suppresses intestinal tumorigenesis through miRNA modulation.

Influence of dietary saturated fat content on adiposity, macrophage behavior, inflammation, and metabolism: composition matters.

We examined the effects of three high-fat diets (HFD), differing in the percentage of total calories from saturated fat (SF) (6%, 12%, and 24%) but identical in total fat (40%), on body composition, macrophage behavior, inflammation, and metabolic dysfunction in mice. Diets were administered for 16 weeks. Body composition and metabolism [glucose, insulin, triglycerides, LDL-cholesterol (LDL-C), HDL-cholesterol (HDL-C), total cholesterol (TC)] were examined monthly. Adipose tissue (AT) expression of marker genes for M1 and M2 macrophages and inflammatory mediators [Toll-like receptor (TLR)-2, TLR-4, MCP-1, tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, interleukin (IL)-6, IL-10, suppressor of cytokine signaling (SOCS)1, IFN-γ] was measured along with activation of nuclear factor kappa-B (NFκB), c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK), and p38- mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK). AT macrophage infiltration was examined using immunohistochemistry. Circulating MCP-1, IL-6, adiponectin, and leptin were also measured. SF content, independent of total fat, can profoundly affect adiposity, macrophage behavior, inflammation, and metabolic dysfunction. In general, the 12%-SF diet, most closely mimicking the standard American diet, led to the greatest adiposity, macrophage infiltration, and insulin resistance (IR), whereas the 6%-SF and 24%-SF diets produced lower levels of these variables, with the 24%-SF diet resulting in the least degree of IR and the highest TC/HDL-C ratio. Macrophage behavior, inflammation, and IR following HFD are heavily influenced by dietary SF content; however, these responses are not necessarily proportional to the SF percentage.

Linking inflammation to tumorigenesis in a mouse model of high-fat-diet-enhanced colon cancer.

Many observational epidemiologic studies suggest an association between high-fat-diet (HFD) and colon cancer risk. However, the lack of controlled experimental studies that examine this relationship and the mechanisms involved weaken the basis for inferring a causal relationship. Inflammation plays a role in colon cancer progression and HFDs have been reported to increase inflammation; however, the inflammatory effects of HFD in colon cancer have yet to be firmly established. We examined the effects of a novel HFD that closely mimics the standard American diet (12% and 40% of total caloric intake from saturated fat and total fat, respectively) on macrophage markers and inflammatory mediators in a mouse model of intestinal tumorigenesis and relate this to polyp characteristics as well as measures of adiposity. Male Apc(Min/+) mice (7-8/group) were fed a Control Diet (Con) or novel high-fat-diet (HFD) from 4 to 12weeks of age. Body weight and body composition were measured weekly and monthly, respectively. Intestinal tissue was analyzed for polyp burden (number and size). Gene expression of macrophage markers and inflammatory mediators were examined in the adipose tissue and polyps. The HFD increased the expression of macrophage markers and inflammatory mediators in the adipose tissue (F4/80, CD11c, TLR-4 and MCP-1) and tumor microenvironment (IL-12, MCP-1, IL-6 and TNF-α). As expected, the HFD increased body weight, body fat percent, fat mass and blood glucose (P<0.05), and was associated with an increase in the number of large polyps (P<0.05) but not total polyps. In summary, consumption of a HFD, similar in macronutrient composition to the standard American diet, altered the expression of macrophage phenotypic markers and inflammatory mediators in adipose tissue and intestinal polyps and this was associated with increased tumorigenesis.

Linking tumor-associated macrophages, inflammation, and intestinal tumorigenesis: role of MCP-1.

Tumor-associated macrophages are associated with poor prognosis in certain cancers. Monocyte chemoattractant protein 1 (MCP-1) is thought to be the most important chemokine for recruitment of macrophages to the tumor microenvironment. However, its role on tumorigenesis in a genetic mouse model of colon cancer has not been explored. We examined the role of MCP-1 on tumor-associated macrophages, inflammation, and intestinal tumorigenesis. Male Apc(Min/+), Apc(Min/+)/MCP-1(-/-) or wild-type mice were euthanized at 18 wk of age and intestines were analyzed for polyp burden, apoptosis, proliferation, ß-catenin, macrophage number and phenotype, markers for cytotoxic T lymphocytes and regulatory T cells, and inflammatory mediators. MCP-1 deficiency decreased overall polyp number by 20% and specifically large polyp number by 45% (P < 0.05). This was consistent with an increase in apoptotic cells (P < 0.05), but there was no change detected in proliferation or ß-catenin. MCP-1 deficiency decreased F4/80-positive cells in both the polyp tissue and surrounding intestinal tissue (P < 0.05) as well as expression of markers associated with M1 (IL-12 and IL-23) and M2 macrophages (IL-13, CD206, TGF-ß, and CCL17) (P < 0.05). MCP-1 knockout was also associated with increased cytotoxic T lymphocytes and decreased regulatory T cells (P < 0.05). In addition, MCP-1(-/-) offset the increased mRNA expression of IL-1ß and IL-6 in intestinal tissue and IL-1ß and TNF-α in polyp tissue (P < 0.05), and prevented the decrease in SOCS1 expression (P < 0.05). We demonstrate that MCP-1 is an important mediator of tumor growth and immune regulation that may serve as an important biomarker and/or therapeutic target in colon cancer.

Intestinal inflammatory cytokine response in relation to tumorigenesis in the Apc(Min/+) mouse.

The etiology of colon cancer is a complex phenomenon that involves both genetic and environmental factors. However, only about 20% have a familial basis with the largest fraction being attributed to environmental causes that can lead to chronic inflammation. While the link between inflammation and colon cancer is well established, the temporal sequence of the inflammatory response in relation to tumorigenesis has not been characterized. We examined the timing and magnitude of the intestinal inflammatory cytokine response in relation to tumorigenesis in the Apc(Min/+) mouse. Apc(Min/+) mice and wildtype mice were sacrificed at one of 4 time-points: 8, 12, 16, and 20 weeks of age. Intestinal tissue was analyzed for polyp burden (sections 1, 4 and 5) and mRNA expression and protein concentration of MCP-1, IL-1ß, IL-6 and TNF-α (sections 2 and 3). The results show that polyp burden was increased at 12, 16 and 20 weeks compared to 8 weeks (P<0.05). Gene expression (mRNA) of MCP-1, IL-1ß, IL-6 and TNF-α was increased in sections 2 and 3 starting at week 12 (P<0.05), with further increases in MCP-1, IL-1ß and IL-6 at 16 weeks (P<0.05). Protein concentration for these cytokines followed a similar pattern in section 3. Similarly, circulating MCP-1 was increased at 12 weeks (P<0.05) and then again at 20 weeks (P<0.05). In general, overall polyp number and abundance of large polyps were significantly correlated with the inflammatory cytokine response providing further support for a relationship between polyp progression and these markers. These data confirm the association between intestinal cytokines and tumorigenesis in the Apc(Min/+) mouse and provide new information on the timing and magnitude of this response in relation to polyp development. These findings may lead to the development of inflammatory mediators as important biomarkers for colon cancer progression. Further, these data may be relevant in the design of future investigations of therapeutic interventions to effectively target inflammatory processes in rodent models.

Quercetin's effects on intestinal polyp multiplicity and macrophage number in the Apc(Min/+) mouse.

Numerous in vitro studies argue for quercetin's chemopreventive potential in colon cancer; however, experimental studies in rodents are limited. Macrophages play a role in tumorigenesis, but the effects of quercetin on macrophage infiltration in colon cancer is unknown. We examined the effects of quercetin on intestinal polyp multiplicity and macrophage number in Apc(Min/+) mice. Apc(Min/+) mice were assigned to placebo or quercetin (n = 8/group) groups. Mice were given a placebo or quercetin (0.02%) diet from 4-20 wk of age, after which intestines were analyzed for polyp number and size in the small intestine (Sections 1-4) and colon (Section 5) and for macrophage number in the small intestine (Sections 1 and 3). Spleen weight was determined as a marker of systemic inflammation. Quercetin decreased total intestinal polyps by 67% (P < 0.05). Specifically, quercetin reduced intestinal polyps in categories >2 mm (69%) and 1-2 mm (79%; P < 0.05), and in Sections 2 (75%), 3 (80%), and 4 (79%; P < 0.05). Quercetin also decreased macrophage number in Sections 1 (57%) and 3 (81%), and spleen weight (P < 0.05). These data suggest that quercetin can reduce polyp number and size distribution in the Apc(Min/+) mouse and that these effects may be related to a reduction in macrophage infiltration.

A Low Dose of Dietary Quercetin Fails to Protect against the Development of an Obese Phenotype in Mice.

The purpose of this study was to examine the effect of a 40% high-fat diet (HFD) supplemented with a dietary attainable level of quercetin (0.02%) on body composition, adipose tissue (AT) inflammation, Non-Alcoholic Fatty-Liver Disease (NAFLD), and metabolic outcomes. Diets were administered for 16 weeks to C57BL/6J mice (n = 10/group) beginning at 4 weeks of age. Body composition and fasting blood glucose, insulin, and total cholesterol concentrations were examined intermittently. AT and liver mRNA expression (RT-PCR) of inflammatory mediators (F4/80, CD206 (AT only), CD11c (AT only) TLR-2 (AT only), TLR-4 (AT only), MCP-1, TNF-α, IL-6 (AT only), and IL-10 (AT only)) were measured along with activation of NFκB-p65, and JNK (western blot). Hepatic lipid accumulation, gene expression (RT-PCR) of hepatic metabolic markers (ACAC1, SREBP-1, PPAR-γ), protein content of Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) Stress markers (BiP, phosphorylated and total EIF2α, phosphorylated and total IRE1α, CHOP), and hepatic oxidative capacity were assessed (western blot). Quercetin administration had no effect at mitigating increases in visceral AT, AT inflammation, hepatic steatosis, ER Stress, decrements in hepatic oxidative capacity, or the development of insulin resistance and hypercholesterolemia. In conclusion, 0.02% quercetin supplementation is not an effective therapy for attenuating HFD-induced obesity development. It is likely that a higher dose of quercetin supplementation is needed to elicit favorable outcomes in obesity.

Lowering the dietary omega-6: omega-3 does not hinder nonalcoholic fatty-liver disease development in a murine model.

It is hypothesized that a high dietary n-6:n-3 (eg, 10-20:1) is partly responsible for the rise in obesity and related health ailments. However, no tightly controlled studies using high-fat diets differing in the n-6:n-3 have tested this hypothesis. The aim of the study was to determine the role that the dietary n-6:n-3 plays in non-alcoholic fatty-liver disease (NAFLD) and colitis development. We hypothesized that reducing the dietary n-6:n-3 would hinder the development of NAFLD and colitis. Male C57BL/6 J mice were fed high-fat diets, differing in the n-6:n-3 (1:1, 5:1, 10:1, 20:1), for 20 weeks. Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry was used to analyze the hepatic phospholipid arachidonic acid (AA):eicosapentaenoic acid and AA:docosahexaenoic acid. Hepatic metabolism, inflammatory signaling, macrophage polarization, gene expression of inflammatory mediators, oxidative and endoplasmic reticulum stress, and oxidative capacity were assessed as well as colonic inflammatory signaling, and gene expression of inflammatory mediators and tight-junction proteins. Although reducing the dietary n-6:n-3 lowered the hepatic phospholipid AA:eicosapentaenoic acid and AA:docosahexaenoic acid in a dose-dependent manner and mildly influenced inflammatory signaling, it did not significantly attenuate NAFLD development. Furthermore, the onset of NAFLD was not paired to colitis development or changes in tight-junction protein gene expression. In conclusion, reducing the dietary n-6:n-3 did not attenuate NAFLD progression; nor is it likely that colitis, or gut permeability, plays a role in NAFLD initiation in this model.

Dietary quercetin reduces chemotherapy-induced fatigue in mice.

PURPOSE: While fatigue is the most commonly reported symptom of chemotherapy, there are currently no effective treatments for chemotherapy-induced fatigue (CIF). We used a mouse model to examine the benefits of quercetin on CIF as measured by voluntary wheel running activity and sought to determine whether quercetin may be associated with a decrease in inflammation and/or anemia. METHODS: Mice were assigned to 1 of 4 groups: placebo-vehicle (Plac-PBS), placebo-5-fluorouracil (Plac-5FU), quercetin-vehicle (Quer-PBS), or quercetin-5-fluorouracil (Quer-5FU). All mice were given a daily injection of either 60 mg/kg of 5-FU or phosphate buffered saline (PBS) for 5 days. Quercetin (0.02%) treatment was administered in the food 3 days prior to 5-FU administration and for the duration of the experiment (ie, days -2 to 14). A second group of mice was sacrificed at 5 and 14 days post initial injection for assessment of monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1) and anemia. RESULTS: Voluntary wheel running was reduced in both the Plac-5FU and Quer-5FU groups following 5-FU injection (P < .05). However, the Quer-5FU group recovered to baseline levels by approximately day 7, whereas the Plac-5FU group remained suppressed. MCP-1 was significantly elevated at 14 days in Plac-5FU (P < .001), but no changes were seen with Quer-5FU. Treatment with 5-FU resulted in anemia at both 5 days and 14 days; however, quercetin blocked this effect at 14 days (P < .001). CONCLUSION: These results demonstrate the beneficial effect of quercetin on improving recovery of voluntary physical activity following 5-FU treatment, which may be linked to a decrease in inflammation and anemia.

Reducing the dietary omega-6:omega-3 utilizing α-linolenic acid; not a sufficient therapy for attenuating high-fat-diet-induced obesity development nor related detrimental metabolic and adipose tissue inflammatory outcomes.

AIMS: To examine the effect of manipulating the omega-6:omega-3 (1∶1, 5∶1, 10∶1, and 20∶1) utilizing only α-linolenic and linoleic acid within a clinically-relevant high-fat diet (HFD) composed of up to seven sources of fat and designed to be similar to the standard American diet (MUFA∶PUFA of 2∶1, 12% and 40% of calories from saturated and total fat, respectively) on body composition, macrophage polarization, inflammation, and metabolic dysfunction in mice. METHODS: Diets were administered for 20 weeks. Body composition and metabolism (HOMA index and lipid profile) were examined monthly. GC-MS was utilized to determine the eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA):arachidonic acid (AA) and the docosahexaenoic acid (DHA):AA in AT phospholipids. Adipose tissue (AT) mRNA expression of chemokines (MCP-1, Fetuin-A, CXCL14), marker genes for M1 and M2 macrophages (CD11c and CD206, respectively) and inflammatory markers (TNF-α, IL-6, IL-1ß, TLR-2, TLR-4, IL-10, GPR120) were measured along with activation of NFκB, JNK, and STAT-3. Macrophage infiltration into AT was examined using F4/80 immunohistochemistry. RESULTS: Any therapeutic benefit produced by reducing the omega-6:omega-3 was evident only when comparing the 1∶1 to 20∶1 HFD; the 1∶1 HFD resulted in a lower TC:HDL-C and decreased AT CXCL14 gene expression and AT macrophage infiltration, which was linked to a higher EPA:AA and DHA:AA in AT phospholipids. However, despite these effects, and independent of the omega-6:omega-3, all HFDs, in general, led to similar levels of adiposity, insulin resistance, and AT inflammation. CONCLUSION: Reducing the omega-6:omega-3 using α-linolenic acid is not an effective therapy for attenuating obesity and type II diabetes mellitus development.

Exercise effects on polyp burden and immune markers in the ApcMin/+ mouse model of intestinal tumorigenesis.

Many observational epidemiologic studies suggest an association between exercise and colon cancer risk. The mechanisms contributing to a preventative effect of exercise on colon cancer are complex and multifaceted. Altered immune system function is one possible mechanism that has been largely unexplored. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to examine the effects of exercise on markers associated with macrophages and select T cell populations in a mouse model of intestinal tumorigenesis and to relate this to polyp characteristics. Male Apc(Min/+) mice were randomly assigned to either sedentary (Sed) or exercise (Ex) treatment (n=6-9/group). The exercise treatment consisted of treadmill running for 1 h/day and 6 days a week at 15 m/min from 4 until 16 weeks of age. Intestinal polyps were counted and categorized by size. Mucosal tissue was analyzed for mRNA expression of overall macrophages (F4/80), for genes associated with M1 (IL-12, IL-23 and Nos2) and M2 (CD206, IL-10, IL-4, CCL17, CCL22 and Arg-1) macrophages and the macrophage chemoattractants MCP-1, fetuin A and CXCL14. Markers for cytotoxic T cells (CTLs) and regulatory T cells were also examined by measuring mRNA expression of CD8 and Foxp3, respectively. While there was no significant difference in overall polyp number between the groups (Sed, 23.3±4.3; and Ex, 16.5±4.3), Ex did have a reduction in the number of large polyps (Sed, 6.1±1.1; and Ex, 3.0±0.6) (P<0.05). This was consistent with a decrease in spleen weight (P<0.05). Similarly, Ex reduced mRNA expression of overall macrophages (F4/80) as well as markers associated with both M1 (IL-12) and M2 (CD206, CCL22 and Arg-1) subtypes (P<0.05) but there was no significant decrease in macrophage chemoattractants. CD8 expression was increased while Foxp3 expression was decreased with Ex (P<0.05). Overall the data provide important new information on immune regulation as a possible mechanism for the documented benefits of exercise training on reducing colon cancer progression.

Indomethacin in combination with exercise leads to muscle and brain inflammation in mice.

Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) are widely used by athletes to reduce exercise-induced inflammation and pain. However, NSAID use has been linked to side effects, including mucosal damage in the gastrointestinal tract resulting in endotoxemia and inflammation. Incidentally, when NSAID use is combined with exercise there is some evidence that this effect may be exacerbated; however, this hypothesis has not been directly tested in a controlled experiment. We examined the combined effect of indomethacin (IND) and exercise on muscle and brain inflammation in mice. Male C57BL/6 mice were randomly assigned to: Exercise 0 mg/Kg IND (Ex-0), Sedentary 0 mg/Kg IND (Sed-0), Exercise 2.5 mg/Kg IND (Ex-2.5), or Sedentary 2.5 mg/Kg IND (Sed-2.5) (n=8-11/group). Mice were given IND (gavage) 1 h before exercise (treadmill run at 25 m/min, 8% grade for 90 min) or rest for 5 consecutive days. Run times and body weight were recorded daily. Muscle and brain were examined for gene expression of inflammatory mediators after 5 days of treatment. While IND and exercise alone had little effect on inflammation, the combination treatment produced substantial increases in the muscle (IL-1ß, MCP-1 & TNF-α) and brain (IL-1ß & MCP-1) (P<0.05). Hematocrit and hemoglobin were decreased along with body weight (days 3-5), and run time to fatigue (days 3-5) (P<0.05) and in general, these were correlated with the increased expression of muscle and brain inflammatory mediators. The combination of IND and exercise can lead to inflammation in both the muscle and brain that is associated with serious side effects and impaired performance in mice.

Susceptibility to infection and inflammatory response following influenza virus (H1N1, A/PR/8/34) challenge: role of macrophages.

The precise role that macrophages play in both influenza-induced pathology and the host's cytokine-mediated response to infection remains largely unknown. We examined the effects of lung macrophage depletion on susceptibility to influenza virus (H1N1, A/PR/8/34) infection and how this relates to the inflammatory cytokine response in the lungs. ICR mice were administered 100 µL of clodronate (CL(2)MDP) or PBS-encapsulated liposomes via an intranasal route 2 days before infection. Then, mice were intranasally inoculated with influenza virus and monitored for morbidity, mortality, and symptom severity for 21 days. Additional mice were sacrificed at 2 and 5 days postinfection, and lung tissue was analyzed for viral replication and for gene expression and protein concentration of interleukin-1ß (IL-1ß), IL-6, and TNF-α. Macrophage depletion increased morbidity, mortality, and symptom severity (P < 0.05) and viral replication at 2 and 5 days postinfection (P < 0.05). IL-1ß, IL-6, and TNF-α mRNA was greater at day 2 (P < 0.05) and IL-6 and TNF-α was greater at day 5 postinfection (P < 0.05) in macrophage depleted mice. Macrophage depletion increased protein concentration of IL-1ß and IL-6 at day 2 postinfection (P < 0.05). These data suggest that macrophages play a necessary role in controlling susceptibility to influenza virus and the host's cytokine-mediated response to influenza infection.

Exercise training increases mitochondrial biogenesis in the brain.

Increased muscle mitochondria are largely responsible for the increased resistance to fatigue and health benefits ascribed to exercise training. However, very little attention has been given to the likely benefits of increased brain mitochondria in this regard. We examined the effects of exercise training on markers of both brain and muscle mitochondrial biogenesis in relation to endurance capacity assessed by a treadmill run to fatigue (RTF) in mice. Male ICR mice were assigned to exercise (EX) or sedentary (SED) conditions (n = 16-19/group). EX mice performed 8 wk of treadmill running for 1 h/day, 6 days/wk at 25 m/min and a 5% incline. Twenty-four hours after the last training bout a subgroup of mice (n = 9-11/group) were euthanized, and brain (brain stem, cerebellum, cortex, frontal lobe, hippocampus, hypothalamus, and midbrain) and muscle (soleus) tissues were isolated for analysis of mRNA expression of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-gamma coactivator-1-alpha (PGC-1α), Silent Information Regulator T1 (SIRT1), citrate synthase (CS), and mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) using RT-PCR. A different subgroup of EX and SED mice (n = 7-8/group) performed a treadmill RTF test. Exercise training increased PGC-1α, SIRT1, and CS mRNA and mtDNA in most brain regions in addition to the soleus (P < 0.05). Mean treadmill RTF increased from 74.0 ± 9.6 min to 126.5 ± 16.1 min following training (P < 0.05). These findings suggest that exercise training increases brain mitochondrial biogenesis, which may have important implications, not only with regard to fatigue, but also with respect to various central nervous system diseases and age-related dementia that are often characterized by mitochondrial dysfunction.

Curcumin's effect on intestinal inflammation and tumorigenesis in the ApcMin/+ mouse.

Curcumin's benefits on tumorigenesis are thought to be mediated by its antiinflammatory activity; however, these effects have not been well characterized in a mouse model of colon cancer. We examined the effects of curcumin on intestinal inflammation in the Apc(Min/+) mouse. Apc(Min/+) mice were given a placebo or curcumin (2%) diet from 4 to 18 weeks of age (n = 10/group). C57BL/6 mice were used as a wild-type control (n = 10/group). Intestines were analyzed for polyp burden (sections 1, 4, and 5) and for mRNA expression, and concentration of interleukin (IL)-1ß, IL-6, tumor necrosis factor-α, and chemokine ligand 2 (CCL2) (sections 2 and 3). Plasma was collected for concentration of CCL2. Curcumin decreased total intestinal polyps by 75% (P < 0.05) in all size categories [>2 mm (65%), 1-2 mm (72%), <1 mm (82%); P < 0.05]. mRNA expression of IL-1ß, IL-6, tumor necrosis factor-α, and CCL2 was elevated (P < 0.05) and curcumin blunted this increase (P < 0.05). Protein concentration of IL-1ß, IL-6 (section 3), and CCL2 was increased (P < 0.05) and curcumin reduced this response for IL-1ß (section 2) and CCL2 (P < 0.05). Curcumin also offset the increase in plasma CCL2 (P < 0.05). The benefits of curcumin in colon cancer may be at least in part mediated by its antiinflammatory activity.