RESUMO
Non-homologous end joining is the major double-strand break repair (DSBR) pathway in mammals. DNA-PK is the hub and organizer of multiple steps in non-homologous end joining (NHEJ). Recent high-resolution structures show how two distinct NHEJ complexes "synapse" two DNA ends. One complex includes a DNA-PK dimer mediated by XLF, whereas a distinct DNA-PK dimer forms via a domain-swap mechanism where the C terminus of Ku80 from one DNA-PK protomer interacts with another DNA-PK protomer in trans. Remarkably, the distance between the two synapsed DNA ends in both dimers is the same (â¼115 Å), which matches the distance observed in the initial description of an NHEJ long-range synaptic complex. Here, a mutational strategy is used to demonstrate distinct cellular function(s) of the two dimers: one promoting fill-in end processing, while the other promotes DNA end resection. Thus, the specific DNA-PK dimer formed (which may be impacted by DNA end structure) dictates the mechanism by which ends will be made ligatable.
Assuntos
Quebras de DNA de Cadeia Dupla , Proteínas de Ligação a DNA , Animais , Proteínas de Ligação a DNA/genética , Subunidades Proteicas/metabolismo , Reparo do DNA por Junção de Extremidades , Reparo do DNA , DNA/genética , Proteína Quinase Ativada por DNA/genética , Autoantígeno Ku/genética , Mamíferos/metabolismoRESUMO
The DNA-dependent protein kinase (DNA-PK) initially protects broken DNA ends but then promotes their processing during non-homologous end joining (NHEJ). Before ligation by NHEJ, DNA hairpin ends generated during V(D)J recombination must be opened by the Artemis nuclease, together with autophosphorylated DNA-PK. Structures of DNA-PK bound to DNA before and after phosphorylation, and in complex with Artemis and a DNA hairpin, reveal an essential functional switch. When bound to open DNA ends in its protection mode, DNA-PK is inhibited for cis-autophosphorylation of the so-called ABCDE cluster but activated for phosphorylation of other targets. In contrast, DNA hairpin ends promote cis-autophosphorylation. Phosphorylation of four Thr residues in ABCDE leads to gross structural rearrangement of DNA-PK, widening the DNA binding groove for Artemis recruitment and hairpin cleavage. Meanwhile, Artemis locks DNA-PK into the kinase-inactive state. Kinase activity and autophosphorylation of DNA-PK are regulated by different DNA ends, feeding forward to coordinate NHEJ events.
Assuntos
Dano ao DNA , Reparo do DNA por Junção de Extremidades , DNA de Neoplasias/metabolismo , Proteína Quinase Ativada por DNA/metabolismo , Neoplasias do Colo do Útero/enzimologia , DNA de Neoplasias/genética , Proteína Quinase Ativada por DNA/genética , Proteínas de Ligação a DNA/genética , Proteínas de Ligação a DNA/metabolismo , Endonucleases/genética , Endonucleases/metabolismo , Ativação Enzimática , Feminino , Células HEK293 , Células HeLa , Humanos , Autoantígeno Ku/genética , Autoantígeno Ku/metabolismo , Conformação de Ácido Nucleico , Fosforilação , Ligação Proteica , Neoplasias do Colo do Útero/genética , Neoplasias do Colo do Útero/patologiaRESUMO
Non-homologous end joining (NHEJ) is one of two critical mechanisms utilized in humans to repair DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs). Unrepaired or incorrect repair of DSBs can lead to apoptosis or cancer. NHEJ involves several proteins, including the Ku70/80 heterodimer, DNA-dependent protein kinase catalytic subunit (DNA-PKcs), X-ray cross-complementing protein 4 (XRCC4), XRCC4-like factor (XLF), and ligase IV. These core proteins bind DSBs and ligate the damaged DNA ends. However, details of the structural assembly of these proteins remain unclear. Here, we present cryo-EM structures of NHEJ supercomplexes that are composed of these core proteins and DNA, revealing the detailed structural architecture of this assembly. We describe monomeric and dimeric forms of this supercomplex and also propose the existence of alternate dimeric forms of long-range synaptic complexes. Finally, we show that mutational disruption of several structural features within these NHEJ complexes negatively affects DNA repair.
Assuntos
DNA Ligase Dependente de ATP/ultraestrutura , Enzimas Reparadoras do DNA/ultraestrutura , Proteína Quinase Ativada por DNA/ultraestrutura , Proteínas de Ligação a DNA/ultraestrutura , Complexos Multiproteicos/ultraestrutura , Apoptose/genética , Microscopia Crioeletrônica , Quebras de DNA de Cadeia Dupla , Dano ao DNA/genética , Reparo do DNA por Junção de Extremidades/genética , DNA Ligase Dependente de ATP/genética , Reparo do DNA/genética , Enzimas Reparadoras do DNA/genética , Proteína Quinase Ativada por DNA/genética , Proteínas de Ligação a DNA/genética , Humanos , Autoantígeno Ku/genética , Autoantígeno Ku/ultraestrutura , Complexos Multiproteicos/genética , Fosforilação/genéticaRESUMO
DNA double strand breaks (DSBs) are induced by external genotoxic agents (ionizing radiation or genotoxins) or by internal processes (recombination intermediates in lymphocytes or by replication errors). The DNA ends induced by these genotoxic processes are often not ligatable, requiring potentially mutagenic end-processing to render ends compatible for ligation by non-homologous end-joining (NHEJ). Using single molecule approaches, Loparo et al. propose that NHEJ fidelity can be maintained by restricting end-processing to a ligation competent short-range NHEJ complex that 'maximizes the fidelity of DNA repair'. These in vitro studies show that although this short-range NHEJ complex requires DNA ligase IV (Lig4), its catalytic activity is dispensable. Here using cellular models, we show that inactive Lig4 robustly promotes DNA repair in living cells. Compared to repair products from wild-type cells, those isolated from cells with inactive Lig4 show a somewhat increased fraction that utilize micro-homology (MH) at the joining site consistent with alternative end-joining (a-EJ). But unlike a-EJ in the absence of NHEJ, a large percentage of joints isolated from cells with inactive Lig4 occur with no MH - thus, clearly distinct from a-EJ. Finally, biochemical assays demonstrate that the inactive Lig4 complex promotes the activity of DNA ligase III (Lig3).
Assuntos
Reparo do DNA por Junção de Extremidades , Reparo do DNA , DNA/genética , Quebras de DNA de Cadeia Dupla , DNA Ligase Dependente de ATP/genética , DNA Ligases/genética , DNA Ligases/metabolismo , BiocatáliseRESUMO
Higher eukaryotes have evolved elegant and redundant pathways to protect their genomes from both genotoxic stressors and foreign DNA from invading pathogens. Emerging data from Burleigh et al. suggest that these distinct pathways may share factors to enhance the functional redundancy of both.
Assuntos
Antivirais , Proteínas de Membrana , DNA , Humanos , Transdução de SinaisRESUMO
As its name implies, the DNA dependent protein kinase (DNA-PK) requires DNA double-stranded ends for enzymatic activation. Here, I demonstrate that hairpinned DNA ends are ineffective for activating the kinase toward many of its well-studied substrates (p53, XRCC4, XLF, HSP90). However, hairpinned DNA ends robustly stimulate certain DNA-PK autophosphorylations. Specifically, autophosphorylation sites within the ABCDE cluster are robustly phosphorylated when DNA-PK is activated by hairpinned DNA ends. Of note, phosphorylation of the ABCDE sites is requisite for activation of the Artemis nuclease that associates with DNA-PK to mediate hairpin opening. This finding suggests a multi-step mechanism of kinase activation. Finally, I find that all non-homologous end joining (NHEJ) defective cells (whether deficient in components of the DNA-PK complex or components of the ligase complex) are similarly deficient in joining DNA double-stranded breaks (DSBs) with hairpinned termini.
Assuntos
Reparo do DNA por Junção de Extremidades/genética , Reparo do DNA/genética , Proteína Quinase Ativada por DNA/genética , DNA/genética , Quebras de DNA de Cadeia Dupla , DNA Ligases/genética , Enzimas Reparadoras do DNA/genética , Proteínas de Ligação a DNA/genética , Proteínas de Choque Térmico HSP90/genética , Humanos , Fosforilação/genética , Ligação Proteica/genética , Proteína Supressora de Tumor p53/genéticaRESUMO
Nonhomologous end-joining (NHEJ) is the major DNA double-strand break (DSB) repair pathway in mammals and resolves the DSBs generated during both V(D)J recombination in developing lymphocytes and class switch recombination (CSR) in antigen-stimulated B cells. In contrast to the absolute requirement for NHEJ to resolve DSBs associated with V(D)J recombination, DSBs associated with CSR can be resolved in NHEJ-deficient cells (albeit at a reduced level) by a poorly defined alternative end-joining (A-EJ) pathway. Deletion of DNA ligase IV (Lig4), a core component of the NHEJ pathway, reduces CSR efficiency in a mouse B-cell line capable of robust cytokine-stimulated CSR in cell culture. Here, we report that CSR levels are not further reduced by deletion of either of the two remaining DNA ligases (Lig1 and nuclear Lig3) in Lig4(-/-) cells. We conclude that in the absence of Lig4, Lig1, and Lig3 function in a redundant manner in resolving switch region DSBs during CSR.
Assuntos
Reparo do DNA por Junção de Extremidades , DNA Ligases/metabolismo , Switching de Imunoglobulina/genética , Recombinação Genética , Animais , Linhagem Celular , Núcleo Celular/enzimologia , Dano ao DNA , DNA Ligase Dependente de ATP , DNA Ligases/genética , Camundongos , Proteínas de Ligação a Poli-ADP-Ribose , Proteínas de XenopusRESUMO
Alkbh1 is a mammalian homolog of the Escherichia coli DNA repair enzyme AlkB, an Fe(II) and 2-oxoglutarate dependent dioxygenase that removes alkyl lesions from DNA bases. The human homolog ALKBH1 has been associated with six different enzymatic activities including DNA, mRNA, or tRNA hydroxylation, cleavage at abasic (AP) sites in DNA, as well as demethylation of histones. The reported cellular roles of this protein reflect the diverse enzymatic activities and include direct DNA repair, tRNA modification, and histone modification. We demonstrate that ALKBH1 produced in mammalian cells (ALKBH1293) is similar to the protein produced in bacteria (ALKBH1Ec) with regard to its m6A demethylase and AP lyase activities. In addition, we find that ALKBH1293 forms a covalent adduct with the 5' product of the lyase product in a manner analogous to ALKBH1Ec. Localization and subcellular fractionation studies with the endogenous protein in two human cell strains confirm that ALKBH1 is primarily in the mitochondria. Two strains of CRISPR/Cas9-created ALKBH1-deficient HEK293 cells showed increases in mtDNA copy number and mitochondrial dysfunction as revealed by growth measurements and citrate synthase activity assays.
Assuntos
Homólogo AlkB 1 da Histona H2a Dioxigenase/metabolismo , Mitocôndrias/metabolismo , Homólogo AlkB 1 da Histona H2a Dioxigenase/deficiência , Homólogo AlkB 1 da Histona H2a Dioxigenase/genética , Proliferação de Células , Adutos de DNA/química , Adutos de DNA/genética , Adutos de DNA/metabolismo , Variações do Número de Cópias de DNA , DNA Mitocondrial/química , DNA Mitocondrial/genética , DNA Mitocondrial/metabolismo , DNA Liase (Sítios Apurínicos ou Apirimidínicos)/genética , DNA Liase (Sítios Apurínicos ou Apirimidínicos)/metabolismo , Células HEK293 , Humanos , Proteínas Recombinantes/genética , Proteínas Recombinantes/metabolismo , Especificidade por SubstratoRESUMO
The evidence that ATM affects resolution of RAG-induced DNA double-strand breaks is profuse and unequivocal; moreover, it is clear that the RAG complex itself cooperates (in an undetermined way) with ATM to facilitate repair of these double-strand breaks by the classical nonhomologous end-joining pathway. The mechanistic basis for the cooperation between ATM and the RAG complex has not been defined, although proposed models invoke ATM and RAG2's C terminus in maintaining the RAG postcleavage complex. In this study, we show that ATM reduces the rate of both coding and signal joining in a robust episomal assay; we suggest that this is the result of increased stability of the postcleavage complex. ATM's ability to inhibit VDJ joining requires its enzymatic activity. The noncore C termini of both RAG1 and RAG2 are also required for ATM's capacity to limit signal (but not coding) joining. Moreover, potential phosphorylation targets within the C terminus of RAG2 are also required for ATM's capacity to limit signal joining. These data suggest a model whereby the RAG signal end complex is stabilized by phosphorylation of RAG2 by ATM.
Assuntos
Proteínas Mutadas de Ataxia Telangiectasia/metabolismo , Proteínas de Ligação a DNA/metabolismo , Rearranjo Gênico do Linfócito B , Proteínas de Homeodomínio/metabolismo , Proteínas Nucleares/metabolismo , Éxons VDJ/genética , Proteínas Mutadas de Ataxia Telangiectasia/genética , Quebras de DNA de Cadeia Dupla , Proteínas de Ligação a DNA/genética , Células HEK293 , Proteínas de Homeodomínio/genética , Humanos , Complexos Multiproteicos/metabolismo , Proteínas Nucleares/genética , Fases de Leitura Aberta/genética , Fosforilação , Plasmídeos/genética , Sinais Direcionadores de Proteínas/genética , Estabilidade Proteica , Reparo de DNA por RecombinaçãoRESUMO
Unlike most DNA-dependent protein kinase, catalytic subunit (DNA-PKcs)-deficient mouse cell strains, we show in the present study that targeted deletion of DNA-PKcs in two different human cell lines abrogates VDJ signal end joining in episomal assays. Although the mechanism is not well defined, DNA-PKcs deficiency results in spontaneous reduction of ATM expression in many cultured cell lines (including those examined in this study) and in DNA-PKcs-deficient mice. We considered that varying loss of ATM expression might explain differences in signal end joining in different cell strains and animal models, and we investigated the impact of ATM and/or DNA-PKcs loss on VDJ recombination in cultured human and rodent cell strains. To our surprise, in DNA-PKcs-deficient mouse cell strains that are proficient in signal end joining, restoration of ATM expression markedly inhibits signal end joining. In contrast, in DNA-PKcs-deficient cells that are deficient in signal end joining, complete loss of ATM enhances signal (but not coding) joint formation. We propose that ATM facilitates restriction of signal ends to the classical nonhomologous end-joining pathway.
Assuntos
Proteínas Mutadas de Ataxia Telangiectasia/genética , Reparo do DNA por Junção de Extremidades , Proteína Quinase Ativada por DNA/deficiência , Expressão Gênica , Recombinação V(D)J , Animais , Proteínas Mutadas de Ataxia Telangiectasia/deficiência , Linhagem Celular , Expressão Ectópica do Gene , Células-Tronco Embrionárias/metabolismo , Fibroblastos/metabolismo , Marcação de Genes , Células HEK293 , Humanos , Camundongos , FenótipoRESUMO
DNA non-homologous end joining (NHEJ) and homologous recombination (HR) function to repair DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs) in G2 phase with HR preferentially repairing heterochromatin-associated DSBs (HC-DSBs). Here, we examine the regulation of repair pathway usage at two-ended DSBs in G2. We identify the speed of DSB repair as a major component influencing repair pathway usage showing that DNA damage and chromatin complexity are factors influencing DSB repair rate and pathway choice. Loss of NHEJ proteins also slows DSB repair allowing increased resection. However, expression of an autophosphorylation-defective DNA-PKcs mutant, which binds DSBs but precludes the completion of NHEJ, dramatically reduces DSB end resection at all DSBs. In contrast, loss of HR does not impair repair by NHEJ although CtIP-dependent end resection precludes NHEJ usage. We propose that NHEJ initially attempts to repair DSBs and, if rapid rejoining does not ensue, then resection occurs promoting repair by HR. Finally, we identify novel roles for ATM in regulating DSB end resection; an indirect role in promoting KAP-1-dependent chromatin relaxation and a direct role in phosphorylating and activating CtIP.
Assuntos
Quebras de DNA de Cadeia Dupla , Reparo do DNA , Fase G2 , Linhagem Celular , Heterocromatina/metabolismo , Humanos , Cinética , Redes e Vias Metabólicas , Recombinação GenéticaRESUMO
The DNA-dependent protein kinase (DNA-PK) was identified as an activity and as its three component polypeptides 25 and 15 years ago, respectively. It has been exhaustively characterized as being absolutely dependent on free double stranded DNA ends (to which it is directed by its regulatory subunit, Ku) for its activation as a robust nuclear serine/threonine protein kinase. Here, we report the unexpected finding of robust DNA-PKcs activation by N-terminal constraint, independent of either DNA or its regulatory subunit Ku. These data suggest that an N-terminal conformational change (likely induced by DNA binding) induces enzymatic activation.
Assuntos
Proteína Quinase Ativada por DNA/química , Proteína Quinase Ativada por DNA/metabolismo , DNA/metabolismo , Animais , Antígenos Nucleares/fisiologia , Células CHO , Domínio Catalítico , Cricetinae , Cricetulus , Proteínas de Ligação a DNA/fisiologia , Ativação Enzimática , Humanos , Autoantígeno Ku , Fosforilação , Cloreto de Sódio/química , Proteína Supressora de Tumor p53/metabolismoRESUMO
XRCC4 and XLF are structurally related proteins important for DNA Ligase IV function. XRCC4 forms a tight complex with DNA Ligase IV while XLF interacts directly with XRCC4. Both XRCC4 and XLF form homodimers that can polymerize as heterotypic filaments independently of DNA Ligase IV. Emerging structural and in vitro biochemical data suggest that XRCC4 and XLF together generate a filamentous structure that promotes bridging between DNA molecules. Here, we show that ablating XRCC4's affinity for XLF results in DNA repair deficits including a surprising deficit in VDJ coding, but not signal end joining. These data are consistent with a model whereby XRCC4/XLF complexes hold DNA ends together--stringently required for coding end joining, but dispensable for signal end joining. Finally, DNA-PK phosphorylation of XRCC4/XLF complexes disrupt DNA bridging in vitro, suggesting a regulatory role for DNA-PK's phosphorylation of XRCC4/XLF complexes.
Assuntos
Reparo do DNA por Junção de Extremidades , Enzimas Reparadoras do DNA/metabolismo , Proteínas de Ligação a DNA/metabolismo , Recombinação V(D)J , Animais , Células CHO , Linhagem Celular , Sobrevivência Celular , Cricetinae , Cricetulus , DNA/metabolismo , Dano ao DNA , DNA Ligase Dependente de ATP , DNA Ligases/metabolismo , Proteína Quinase Ativada por DNA/metabolismo , Proteínas de Ligação a DNA/genética , Humanos , Mutação , Fosforilação , Tolerância a RadiaçãoRESUMO
Given its central role in life, DNA is remarkably easy to damage. Double strand breaks (DSBs) are the most toxic form of DNA damage, and DSBs pose the greatest danger to genomic integrity. In higher vertebrates, the non-homologous end joining pathway (NHEJ) is the predominate pathway that repairs DSBs. NHEJ has three steps: 1) DNA end recognition by the DNA dependent protein kinase [DNA-PK], 2) DNA end-processing by numerous NHEJ accessory factors, and 3) DNA end ligation by the DNA ligase IV complex (LX4). Although this would appear to be a relatively simple mechanism, it has become increasingly apparent that it is not. Recently, much insight has been derived regarding the mechanism of non-homologous end joining through a proliferation of cryo-EM studies, structure-function mutational experiments informed by these new structural data, and novel single-molecule imaging approaches. An emerging consensus in the field is that NHEJ progresses from initial DSB end recognition by DNA-PK to synapsis of the two DNA ends in a long-range synaptic complex where ends are held too far apart (115â¯Å) for ligation, and then progress to a short-range synaptic complex where ends are positioned close enough for ligation. What was surprising from these structural studies was the observation of two distinct types of DNA-PK dimers that represent NHEJ long-range complexes. In this review, we summarize current knowledge about the function of the distinct NHEJ synaptic complexes and align this new information with emerging cellular single-molecule microscopy studies as well as with previous studies of DNA-PK's function in repair.
Assuntos
Quebras de DNA de Cadeia Dupla , Reparo do DNA por Junção de Extremidades , Proteína Quinase Ativada por DNA , Humanos , Proteína Quinase Ativada por DNA/metabolismo , Animais , DNA/metabolismo , Pareamento Cromossômico , DNA Ligase Dependente de ATP/metabolismoRESUMO
The DNA dependent protein kinase (DNA-PK) initiates non-homologous recombination (NHEJ), the predominate DNA double-strand break (DSBR) pathway in higher vertebrates. It has been known for decades that the enzymatic activity of DNA-PK [that requires its three component polypeptides, Ku70, Ku80 (that comprise the DNA-end binding Ku heterodimer), and the catalytic subunit (DNA-PKcs)] is present in humans at 10-50 times the level observed in other mammals. Here, we show that the high level of DNA-PKcs protein expression appears evolutionarily in mammals between prosimians and higher primates. Moreover, the RNAs encoding the three component polypeptides of DNA-PK are present at similarly high levels in hominids, new-, and old-world monkeys, but expression of these RNAs in prosimians is â¼5-50 fold less, analogous to the levels observed in other non-primate species. This is reminiscent of the appearance of Alu repeats in primate genomes -- abundant in higher primates, but present at much lower density in prosimians. Alu repeats are well-known for their capacity to promote non-allelic homologous recombination (NAHR) a process known to be inhibited by DNA-PK. Nanopore sequence analyses of cultured cells proficient or deficient in DNA-PK revealed an increase of inter-chromosomal translocations caused by NAHR. Although the high levels of DNA-PK in primates may have many functions, we posit that high levels of DNA-PK may function to restrain deleterious NAHR events between Alu elements.
RESUMO
Non-homologous end joining (NHEJ) is the predominant pathway that repairs DNA double-stranded breaks (DSBs) in vertebrates. However, due to challenges in detecting DSBs in living cells, the repair capacity of the NHEJ pathway is unknown. The DNA termini of many DSBs must be processed to allow ligation while minimizing genetic changes that result from break repair. Emerging models propose that DNA termini are first synapsed ~115Å apart in one of several long-range synaptic complexes before transitioning into a short-range synaptic complex that juxtaposes DNA ends to facilitate ligation. The transition from long-range to short-range synaptic complexes involves both conformational and compositional changes of the NHEJ factors bound to the DNA break. Importantly, it is unclear how NHEJ proceeds in vivo because of the challenges involved in analyzing recruitment of NHEJ factors to DSBs over time in living cells. Here, we develop a new approach to study the temporal and compositional dynamics of NHEJ complexes using live cell single-molecule imaging. Our results provide direct evidence for stepwise maturation of the NHEJ complex, pinpoint key regulatory steps in NHEJ progression, and define the overall repair capacity NHEJ in living cells.
RESUMO
DNA double strand breaks (DSBs), induced by ionizing radiation (IR) and endogenous stress including replication failure, are the most cytotoxic form of DNA damage. In human cells, most IR-induced DSBs are repaired by the nonhomologous end joining (NHEJ) pathway. One of the most critical steps in NHEJ is ligation of DNA ends by DNA ligase IV (LIG4), which interacts with, and is stabilized by, the scaffolding protein X-ray cross-complementing gene 4 (XRCC4). XRCC4 also interacts with XRCC4-like factor (XLF, also called Cernunnos); yet, XLF has been one of the least mechanistically understood proteins and precisely how XLF functions in NHEJ has been enigmatic. Here, we examine current combined structural and mutational findings that uncover integrated functions of XRCC4 and XLF and reveal their interactions to form long, helical protein filaments suitable to protect and align DSB ends. XLF-XRCC4 provides a global structural scaffold for ligating DSBs without requiring long DNA ends, thus ensuring accurate and efficient ligation and repair. The assembly of these XRCC4-XLF filaments, providing both DNA end protection and alignment, may commit cells to NHEJ with general biological implications for NHEJ and DSB repair processes and their links to cancer predispositions and interventions.
Assuntos
Reparo do DNA por Junção de Extremidades , DNA Ligases/genética , Enzimas Reparadoras do DNA/genética , Reparo do DNA , Proteínas de Ligação a DNA/genética , DNA/genética , Transformação Celular Neoplásica/genética , Transformação Celular Neoplásica/metabolismo , DNA/metabolismo , Quebras de DNA de Cadeia Dupla , DNA Ligase Dependente de ATP , DNA Ligases/metabolismo , Enzimas Reparadoras do DNA/metabolismo , Proteínas de Ligação a DNA/metabolismo , Humanos , Modelos Moleculares , Ligação Proteica , Radiação IonizanteRESUMO
Mammalian cells repair DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs) through either homologous recombination or non-homologous end joining (NHEJ). V(D)J recombination, a cut-and-paste mechanism for generating diversity in antigen receptors, relies on NHEJ for repairing DSBs introduced by the Rag1-Rag2 protein complex. Animals lacking any of the seven known NHEJ factors are therefore immunodeficient. Nevertheless, DSB repair is not eliminated entirely in these animals: evidence of a third mechanism, 'alternative NHEJ', appears in the form of extremely rare V(D)J junctions and a higher rate of chromosomal translocations. The paucity of these V(D)J events has suggested that alternative NHEJ contributes little to a cell's overall repair capacity, being operative only (and inefficiently) when classical NHEJ fails. Here we find that removing certain portions of murine Rag proteins reveals robust alternative NHEJ activity in NHEJ-deficient cells and some alternative joining activity even in wild-type cells. We propose a two-tier model in which the Rag proteins collaborate with NHEJ factors to preserve genomic integrity during V(D)J recombination.
Assuntos
Proteínas de Ligação a DNA/genética , Proteínas de Ligação a DNA/metabolismo , Proteínas de Homeodomínio/genética , Proteínas de Homeodomínio/metabolismo , Recombinação Genética/genética , Animais , Proteínas de Ligação a DNA/química , Proteínas de Ligação a DNA/deficiência , Proteínas de Homeodomínio/química , Camundongos , Modelos Genéticos , Mutação/genéticaRESUMO
It has been known for decades that the DNA-dependent protein kinase (DNA-PK) is only an active serine/threonine protein kinase when it is bound to a DNA double-stranded end; still, the molecular details of how this activation is achieved have remained elusive. The recent surge in structural information for DNA-PK complexes has provided valuable insights into the process of DNA end recognition by DNA-PK. A particularly intriguing feature of this kinase is a region of the protein that can transition from a seemingly structurally disordered state to a single alpha-helix that traverses down the DNA binding cradle. The DNA-PK bound DNA end of the DNA substrate engages with and appears to split around this helix which has been named the DNA End Blocking helix (DEB). Here a mutational approach is utilized to clarify the role of the DEB, and how DNA ends activate the enzyme. Our data suggest two distinct methods of kinase activation that is dependent on the DNA end chemistry. If the DNA end can split around the helix and stabilize the interaction between the DNA end and the DEB with a recently defined Helix-Hairpin-Helix (HHH) motif, the kinase forms an end-protection monomer that is active towards DNA-PK's many substrates. But if the DNA end cannot stably interact with the DEB [because of the DNA end structure, for instance hairpins, or because the DEB has been disrupted by mutation], the kinase is only partially activated, resulting in specific autophosphorylations of the DNA-PK monomer that allows nucleolytic end-processing. We posit that mutants that disrupt the capacity to stably generate the DEB/HHH DNA end-interaction are inefficient in generating the dimer complex that is requisite for NHEJ. In support of this idea, mutations that promote formation of this dimer partially rescue the severe cellular phenotypes associated with mutation of the DEB helix.