Local and systemic insulin resistance resulting from hepatic activation of IKK-beta and NF-kappaB.

We show that NF-kappaB and transcriptional targets are activated in liver by obesity and high-fat diet (HFD). We have matched this state of chronic, subacute 'inflammation' by low-level activation of NF-kappaB in the liver of transgenic mice, designated LIKK, by selectively expressing constitutively active IKK-b in hepatocytes. These mice exhibit a type 2 diabetes phenotype, characterized by hyperglycemia, profound hepatic insulin resistance, and moderate systemic insulin resistance, including effects in muscle. The hepatic production of proinflammatory cytokines, including IL-6, IL-1beta and TNF-alpha, was increased in LIKK mice to a similar extent as induced by HFD in in wild-type mice. Parallel increases were observed in cytokine signaling in liver and mucscle of LIKK mice. Insulin resistance was improved by systemic neutralization of IL-6 or salicylate inhibition of IKK-beta. Hepatic expression of the IkappaBalpha superrepressor (LISR) reversed the phenotype of both LIKK mice and wild-type mice fed an HFD. These findings indicate that lipid accumulation in the liver leads to subacute hepatic 'inflammation' through NF-kappaB activation and downstream cytokine production. This causes insulin resistance both locally in liver and systemically.

Laboratory and Benchtop Performance of a Mealtime Insulin-Delivery System.

BACKGROUND: A basal bolus insulin regimen requires multiple daily insulin injections, which might discourage patient adherence. As a potential solution, a mealtime insulin-delivery system-a 3-day wearable bolus-only patch-was designed to manually administer mealtime insulin discreetly by actuating buttons through clothing, without the need for multiple needle sticks. METHOD: Extensive functional testing of the patch included dose accuracy (from initial fill of the device to empty), pressure-vacuum leak testing, last-dose lockout and occlusion detection (safety alert features that lock the dosing buttons when no insulin is delivered), assessments of insulin drug stability, toxicological risk (including chemical testing), and system biocompatibility. RESULTS: Dosing accuracy was 2 units ±10% (with U-100 insulin) over a range of environmental conditions, with ≥95% reliability and confidence. The fluid seal performance and the safety alert features performed with ≥95% reliability and ≥95% confidence. The system met acceptable standards for insulin (U-100 lispro and aspart) stability for its intended 3-day use, in addition to the operational requirements. The toxicological risk assessment and demonstrated biocompatibility suggested that the patch is safe for human use. CONCLUSIONS: Benchtop performance showed that the bolus-only patch is a safe, accurate, and reliable device for mealtime insulin delivery.

Thermal inkjet application in the preparation of oral dosage forms: dispensing of prednisolone solutions and polymorphic characterization by solid-state spectroscopic techniques.

The utility of thermal inkjet (TIJ) technology for preparing solid dosage forms of drugs was examined. Solutions of prednisolone in a solvent mixture of ethanol, water, and glycerol (80/17/3 by volume) were dispensed onto poly(tetrafluoroethylene)-coated fiberglass films using TIJ cartridges and a personal printer and using a micropipette for comparison. The post-dried, TIJ-dispensed samples were shown to contain a mixture of prednisolone Forms I and III based on PXRD analyses that were confirmed by Raman analyses. The starting commercial material was determined to be Form I. Samples prepared by dispensing the solution from a micropipette initially showed only Form I; subsequent Raman mapping of these samples revealed the presence of two polymorphs. Raman mapping of the TIJ-dispensed samples also showed both polymorphs. The results indicate that the solvent mixture used in the dispensing solution combined with the thermal treatment of the samples after dispensing were likely the primary reason for the generation of the two polymorphs. The advantages of using a multidisciplinary approach to characterize drug delivery systems are demonstrated using solid state mapping techniques. Both PXRD and Raman spectroscopy were needed to fully characterize the samples. Finally, this report clarifies prednisolone's polymorphic nomenclature existent in the scientific literature.

Two new substrates in insulin signaling, IRS5/DOK4 and IRS6/DOK5.

We have identified two new human genes that encode proteins with tandem pleckstrin homology-phosphotyrosine binding (PH-PTB) domains at their amino termini. Because the other known PH-PTB proteins (insulin receptor substrates: IRS-1, IRS-2, IRS-3, and IRS-4, and the downstream of kinases: DOK-1, DOK-2, and DOK-3) are substrates of insulin and insulin-like growth factor (IGF)-1 receptors, we asked whether these new proteins, termed IRS5/DOK4 and IRS6/DOK5, might also have roles in insulin and IGF-1 signaling. Northern analyses indicate that IRS5/DOK4 is ubiquitously expressed but most abundant in kidney and liver. IRS6/DOK5 expression is highest in skeletal muscle. Both proteins are tyrosine-phosphorylated in response to insulin and IGF-1 in transfected cells, although the kinetics differ. Insulin receptor-phosphorylated IRS5/DOK4 associates with RasGAP, Crk, Src, and Fyn, but not phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase p85, Grb2, SHP-2, Nck, or phospholipase Cgamma Src homology 2 domains, and activates MAPK in cells. IRS6/DOK5 neither associates with these Src homology 2 domains nor activates MAPK. IRS5/DOK4 and IRS6/DOK5 represent two new signaling proteins with potential roles in insulin and IGF-1 action.

IKKbeta/NF-kappaB activation causes severe muscle wasting in mice.

Muscle wasting accompanies aging and pathological conditions ranging from cancer, cachexia, and diabetes to denervation and immobilization. We show that activation of NF-kappaB, through muscle-specific transgenic expression of activated IkappaB kinase beta (MIKK), causes profound muscle wasting that resembles clinical cachexia. In contrast, no overt phenotype was seen upon muscle-specific inhibition of NF-kappaB through expression of IkappaBalpha superrepressor (MISR). Muscle loss was due to accelerated protein breakdown through ubiquitin-dependent proteolysis. Expression of the E3 ligase MuRF1, a mediator of muscle atrophy, was increased in MIKK mice. Pharmacological or genetic inhibition of the IKKbeta/NF-kappaB/MuRF1 pathway reversed muscle atrophy. Denervation- and tumor-induced muscle loss were substantially reduced and survival rates improved by NF-kappaB inhibition in MISR mice, consistent with a critical role for NF-kappaB in the pathology of muscle wasting and establishing it as an important clinical target for the treatment of muscle atrophy.