Experiences with simultaneous use of contraception and the vaginal ring for HIV prevention in sub-Saharan Africa.

BACKGROUND: Clinical trials have found that a monthly dapivirine vaginal ring was well-tolerated and reduced HIV-1 risk among women in sub-Saharan Africa. However, in order for the ring or other novel prevention methods to have optimal impact, it is necessary to understand and address women's challenges to uptake and adherence. This paper provides insight into a few key challenges noted by women using the ring and contraceptives simultaneously. METHODS: The qualitative portion of the MTN-020/ASPIRE study consisted of data collection using single in-depth interviews, serial in-depth interviews, and focus group discussions, conducted with 214 participants across 15 sites in Malawi, South Africa, Uganda and Zimbabwe. A coding team used qualitative analysis software to identify themes within the interviews. RESULTS: The primary qualitative themes among participant data pertained to side effects. Participants reported negative side effects related to menses, in some cases attributing these effects to their contraceptives and in others to the vaginal ring. Participants also expressed concern over the long-term impact of contraception and ring use on fertility, including the reversibility of the contraceptive, especially among nulliparous women. CONCLUSIONS: Women's attitudes toward contraceptives can impact their willingness to concurrently use and adhere to a novel HIV prevention product. To optimize the potential of both prevention products, researchers should pre-emptively address concerns about contraceptive impact on fertility and counsel women about the expected side effects of contraceptives versus the ring. Clinical trials identifier NCT01617096. Registered on 6-12-2012 at clinicaltrials.gov https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT01617096.

Estimated costs for the delivery of safer conception strategies for HIV-discordant couples in Zimbabwe: a cost analysis.

BACKGROUND: In recent years, safer conception strategies have been developed to help HIV-serodiscordant couples conceive a child without transmitting HIV to the seronegative partner. The SAFER clinical trial assessed implementation of these strategies in Zimbabwe. METHODS: As a part of the SAFER study, we estimated the costs (in 2017 $US) associated with individual and combination strategies, in the trial setting and real-world practice, from a healthcare system perspective. Safer conception strategies included: 1) ART with frequent viral load testing until achieving undetectable viral load (ART-VL); 2) daily oral pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP); 3) semen-washing with intrauterine insemination; and 4) manual self-insemination at home. For costs in the trial, we used a micro-costing approach, including a time and motion study to quantify personnel effort, and estimated the cost per couple for individual and combination strategies for a mean of 6 months of safer services. For real-world practice, we modeled costs for three implementation scenarios, representing differences from the trial in input prices (paid by the Ministry of Health and Child Care [MOHCC]), intervention intensity, and increments to current HIV prevention and treatment practices and guidelines. We used one-way sensitivity analyses to assess the impact of uncertainty in input variables. RESULTS: Individual strategy costs were $769-$1615 per couple in the trial; $185-$563 if using MOHCC prices. Under the target intervention intensity and using MOHCC prices, individual strategy costs were $73-$360 per couple over and above the cost of current HIV clinical practices. The cost of delivering the most commonly selected combination, ART-VL plus PrEP, ranged from $166-$517 per couple under the three real-world scenarios. Highest costs were for personnel, lab tests, and strategy-specific consumables, in variable proportions by clinical strategy and analysis scenario. Total costs were most affected by uncertainty in the price of PrEP, number of semen-washing attempts, and scale-up of semen-washing capacity. CONCLUSIONS: Safer conception methods have costs that may be affordable in many low-resource settings. These cost data will help implementers and policymakers add safer conception services. Cost-effectiveness analysis is needed to assess value for money for safer conception services overall and for safer strategy combinations. TRIAL REGISTRATION: Registry Name: Clinicaltrials.gov. TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER: NCT03049176 . Registration date: February 9, 2017.

Clinical and Virologic Outcomes Following Initiation of Antiretroviral Therapy Among Seroconverters in the Microbicide Trials Network-020 Phase III Trial of the Dapivirine Vaginal Ring.

BACKGROUND: A vaginal ring containing dapivirine, a non-nucleoside human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-1 reverse transcriptase inhibitor (NNRTI), was safe and effective in preventing HIV-1 infection in African women. We examined the impact of dapivirine ring use at the time of HIV-1 acquisition on subsequent HIV-1 disease progression and responses to NNRTI-containing antiretroviral therapy (ART). METHODS: HIV-1 disease progression and virologic failure following initiation of ART were assessed among women who acquired HIV-1 while participating in Microbicide Trials Network-020, a randomized, placebo-controlled trial of a monthly, dapivirine vaginal ring. RESULTS: Among the 158 participants who acquired HIV-1 (65 dapivirine, 93 placebo), no differences between dapivirine and placebo participants were observed in CD4+ cell counts or plasma HIV-1 RNA over the first year after infection (prior to ART). During follow-up, 100/158 (63%) participants initiated NNRTI-containing ART (dapivirine: 39/65; placebo: 61/93); the median time to HIV-1 RNA <200 copies/ml was approximately 90 days for both dapivirine and placebo ring recipients (log-rank P = .40). Among the 81 participants with at least 6 months of post-ART follow-up, 19 (24%) experienced virologic failure (dapivirine: 6/32, 19%; placebo: 13/39, 27%; P = .42). CONCLUSIONS: The acquisition of HIV-1 infection during dapivirine or placebo treatment in ASPIRE did not lead to differences in HIV-1 disease progression. After the initiation of NNRTI-containing ART, dapivirine and placebo participants had similar times to virologic suppression and risks of virologic failure. These results provide reassurance that NNRTI-based ART regimens are effective among women who acquired HIV-1 while receiving the dapivirine vaginal ring. CLINICAL TRIALS REGISTRATION: NCT016170096 and NCT00514098.

Use of a Vaginal Ring Containing Dapivirine for HIV-1 Prevention in Women.

BACKGROUND: Antiretroviral medications that are used as prophylaxis can prevent acquisition of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) infection. However, in clinical trials among African women, the incidence of HIV-1 infection was not reduced, probably because of low adherence. Longer-acting methods of drug delivery, such as vaginal rings, may simplify use of antiretroviral medications and provide HIV-1 protection. METHODS: We conducted a phase 3, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of a monthly vaginal ring containing dapivirine, a non-nucleoside HIV-1 reverse-transcriptase inhibitor, involving women between the ages of 18 and 45 years in Malawi, South Africa, Uganda, and Zimbabwe. RESULTS: Among the 2629 women who were enrolled, 168 HIV-1 infections occurred: 71 in the dapivirine group and 97 in the placebo group (incidence, 3.3 and 4.5 per 100 person-years, respectively). The incidence of HIV-1 infection in the dapivirine group was lower by 27% (95% confidence interval [CI], 1 to 46; P=0.046) than that in the placebo group. In an analysis that excluded data from two sites that had reduced rates of retention and adherence, the incidence of HIV-1 infection in the dapivirine group was lower by 37% (95% CI, 12 to 56; P=0.007) than that in the placebo group. In a post hoc analysis, higher rates of HIV-1 protection were observed among women over the age of 21 years (56%; 95% CI, 31 to 71; P<0.001) but not among those 21 years of age or younger (-27%; 95% CI, -133 to 31; P=0.45), a difference that was correlated with reduced adherence. The rates of adverse medical events and antiretroviral resistance among women who acquired HIV-1 infection were similar in the two groups. CONCLUSIONS: A monthly vaginal ring containing dapivirine reduced the risk of HIV-1 infection among African women, with increased efficacy in subgroups with evidence of increased adherence. (Funded by the National Institutes of Health; ClinicalTrials.gov number, NCT01617096 .).

Complex decisions: correlates of injectable contraceptive discontinuation following HIV-1 seroconversion in an HIV prevention trial.

Contraceptive adherence during acute and recent HIV-1 infection is important to maternal and child health given the elevated risk of vertical HIV-1 transmission and additional complications of pregnancy. Injectable contraception (IC) is the most common non-barrier modern contraception method used in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). Adherence to IC after HIV-1 seroconversion is not well understood. We examined factors associated with IC discontinuation among women in SSA diagnosed with HIV-1 infection while participating in a clinical trial of biomedical HIV-1 prevention. After diagnosis with HIV-1 infection in the VOICE trial, 255 women from South Africa, Uganda, and Zimbabwe enrolled in a longitudinal observational study (MTN-015). Contraceptive method was assessed at MTN-015 baseline and at 3, 12, and 24 months post-seroconversion. Correlates of IC discontinuation were examined by Cox proportional hazard modeling. IC use was reported at baseline by 78% of women enrolled (198/255), of which 92% (182/198) completed at least one follow-up visit. Two-thirds of women (66%, 121/182) continued on IC during the follow-up period (median 24 months). Lower rates of IC discontinuation were observed in women who reported having had at least one child (HR 0.39, 95% CI 0.20-0.82) or earning a personal income (HR 0.51, 95% CI 0.30-0.87) at baseline. These findings suggest that many women with HIV-1 infection face complex decision-making regarding family planning in the years that follow seroconversion and highlight that some women may discontinue IC use despite on-site provision of family planning services. Understanding the broader context of family planning choices in recently seroconverted women may be key to more effective linkages between family planning services and HIV-1 testing and care.

Impact of contraceptive initiation on vaginal microbiota.

BACKGROUND: Data evaluating the impact of contraceptives on the vaginal microbiome are limited and inconsistent. OBJECTIVE: We hypothesized that women initiating copper intrauterine device use would have increased bacterial vaginosis and bacterial vaginosis-associated microbes with use compared to women initiating and using hormonal contraceptive methods. STUDY DESIGN: Vaginal swabs (N = 1047 from 266 participants seeking contraception) for Nugent score determination of bacterial vaginosis and quantitative polymerase chain reaction analyses for assessment of specific microbiota were collected from asymptomatic, healthy women aged 18-35 years in Harare, Zimbabwe, who were confirmed to be free of nonstudy hormones by mass spectrometry at each visit. Contraception was initiated with an injectable (depot medroxyprogesterone acetate [n = 41], norethisterone enanthate [n = 44], or medroxyprogesterone acetate and ethinyl estradiol [n = 40]), implant (levonorgestrel [n = 45] or etonogestrel [n = 48]), or copper intrauterine device (n = 48) and repeat vaginal swabs were collected after 30, 90, and 180 days of continuous use. Self-reported condom use was similar across all arms at baseline. Quantitative polymerase chain reaction was used to detect Lactobacillus crispatus, L jensenii, L gasseri/johnsonii group, L vaginalis, L iners, Gardnerella vaginalis, Atopobium vaginae, and Megasphaera-like bacterium phylotype I from swabs. Modified Poisson regression and mixed effects linear models were used to compare marginal prevalence and mean difference in quantity (expressed as gene copies/swab) prior to and during contraceptive use. RESULTS: Bacterial vaginosis prevalence increased in women initiating copper intrauterine devices from 27% at baseline, 35% at 30 days, 40% at 90 days, and 49% at 180 days (P = .005 compared to marginal prevalence at enrollment). Women initiating hormonal methods had no change in bacterial vaginosis prevalence over 180 days. The mean increase in Nugent score was 1.2 (95% confidence interval, 0.5-2.0; P = .001) in women using copper intrauterine devices. Although the frequency and density of beneficial lactobacilli did not change among intrauterine device users over 6 months, there was an increase in the log concentration of G vaginalis (4.7, 5.2, 5.8, 5.9; P = .046) and A vaginae (3.0, 3.8, 4.6, 5.1; P = .002) between baseline and 30, 90, and 180 days after initiation. Among other contraceptive groups, women using depot medroxyprogesterone acetate had decreased L iners (mean decrease log concentration = 0.8; 95% confidence interval, 0.3-1.5; P = .004) and there were no significant changes in beneficial Lactobacillus species over 180 days regardless of contraceptive method used. CONCLUSION: Copper intrauterine device use may increase colonization by bacterial vaginosis-associated microbiota, resulting in increased prevalence of bacterial vaginosis. Use of most hormonal contraception does not alter vaginal microbiota.

Preventing HIV and achieving pregnancy among HIV sero-different couples: Pilot study of a safer conception intervention in Zimbabwe.

Safer conception services are needed to minimize HIV transmission among HIV sero-different couples desiring pregnancy. Few studies have evaluated the choices couples make when offered multiple safer conception methods or real-world method acceptability and effectiveness. We piloted a comprehensive safer conception program (Clintrials.gov identifier: NCT03049176) for HIV sero-different couples planning pregnancy in Zimbabwe to measure feasibility, method uptake, acceptability, pregnancy outcome, and HIV transmission. This study was not designed to compare rates of HIV transmission by safer conception method choice but rather to understand choices couples make when seeking to minimize risk of HIV transmission and maximize likelihood of pregnancy. Couples in this prospective, non-randomized study were given a choice of one or more currently available safer conception methods: antiretroviral therapy (ART) with monthly viral load (VL) monitoring for the HIV-positive partner (ART/VL), pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) for the HIV-negative partner, vaginal insemination (VI) for couples with an HIV-positive woman, and semen washing (SW) for couples with an HIV-positive man. Couples were followed monthly for up to 12 months of pregnancy attempts, quarterly during pregnancy, and 12 weeks post-partum. At each visit, data on method use, urine for pregnancy testing, and blood for HIV antibody testing, or viral load if HIV-positive, were obtained. Infants born to HIV-positive women were tested for HIV at 6 and 12 weeks. Between March 2017 and June 2019, 46 individuals from 23 HIV sero-different partnerships were enrolled and followed. At enrollment, all couples chose ART/VL, and all couples chose at least one additional method; 74% chose PrEP, 36% chose SW, and 25% chose VI. During pre-pregnancy follow-up visits, three couples discontinued SW, and one couple discontinued VI; all four of these couples opted for ART/VL plus PrEP. Satisfaction with safer conception methods was high among those who chose ART/VL and PrEP. Twelve couples achieved pregnancy. There were no cases of HIV transmission to partners, and no infants tested positive for HIV. This safer conception program is feasible and acceptable, allowing sero-different couples to safely achieve pregnancy. Sero-different couples in Zimbabwe seek a combination of HIV prevention methods, particularly ART/VL plus PrEP. Trial Registration: Clintrials.gov, NCT03049176.

Non-clinical considerations for supporting accelerated inclusion of pregnant women in pre-licensure clinical trials with anti-HIV agents.

INTRODUCTION: To allow the continued participation of women enrolled in pre-licensure clinical trials who become pregnant, and to potentially enrol pregnant women in clinical trials, non-clinical developmental and reproductive toxicology studies (DART) are essential. Generally during pharmaceutical development, DART studies are conducted late during clinical development, leading to the exclusion of pregnant women from enrolment and withdrawal of women becoming pregnant during pre-licensure trials. DISCUSSION: Completing all DART studies prior to or early during the conduct of phase 3 trials (i.e. earlier than current common practice) can accelerate and facilitate the inclusion of women who become pregnant during pre-licensure trials to remain on study drug and to potentially enrol pregnant women more rapidly. Promoting complementary strategies, such as alternative combinations of DART study designs and physiologically based pharmacokinetic modelling, could better inform drug dosing and safety in pregnancy at an earlier stage in drug development. The interpretation of the results of non-clinical DART studies is often complex. Institutional review boards/ethics committees should have access to relevant expertise for interpretation and application of results of non-clinical developmental and reproductive toxicity studies. Clear communication and thorough understanding of non-clinical findings and the overall benefit-risk profile of the product are critical to review protocols and determine if women who become pregnant during a clinical trial could continue on study drug and/or to enrol pregnant women in the trial. The informed consent document should be well written so that participants can make an informed decision to stay on study drug or participate in a trial during pregnancy. Ultimately, the decision to allow women who become pregnant during pre-licensure trials to remain on study will depend on the totality of the evidence and benefit-risk considerations. CONCLUSIONS: We propose that industry completes non-clinical reproductive toxicity studies prior to or early during the conduct of phase 3 trials in HIV drug development, especially for priority agents, and potentially uses alternative DART study design strategies to achieve this goal.

Spontaneous bilateral tubal ectopic pregnancy: a case report.

Bilateral tubal ectopic pregnancy is a very rare form of extra-uterine pregnancy with high maternal morbidity and mortality if intervention is delayed. We report the case of a 27-year-old para 2 gravida 3 patient who presented in haemorrhagic shock after delayed diagnosis of ectopic pregnancy. An ultrasound scan noted a right tubal ectopic pregnancy. At laparotomy, bilateral ruptured tubal ectopic pregnancy was encountered and bilateral salpingectomy was done as both tubes were not salvageable. She recovered completely postoperatively and histology confirmed bilateral tubal ectopic pregnancies. Bilateral tubal ectopic pregnancy may not be easily diagnosed on a scan; hence vigilance at surgery is critical to prevent maternal mortality.

Assessing pregnancy and neonatal outcomes in Malawi, South Africa, Uganda, and Zimbabwe: Results from a systematic chart review.

A systematic chart review was performed to estimate the frequency of pregnancy outcomes, pregnancy complications and neonatal outcomes at facilities in Blantyre, Malawi; Johannesburg, South Africa; Kampala, Uganda; and Chitungwiza and Harare, Zimbabwe to provide comparisons with estimates from an ongoing clinical trial evaluating the safety of two biomedical HIV prevention interventions in pregnancy. A multi-site, cross-sectional chart review was conducted at Maternal Obstetric Units and hospitals where women participating in the ongoing clinical trial would be expected to deliver. All individuals delivering at the designated facilities or admitted for postpartum care within seven days of a delivery elsewhere (home, health clinic, etc.) were included in the review. Data were abstracted for pregnancy outcomes, pregnancy complications, maternal and neonatal death, and congenital anomalies. Data from 10,138 records were abstracted across all four sites (Blantyre n = 2,384; Johannesburg n = 1,888; Kampala n = 3,708; Chitungwiza and Harare n = 2,158), which included 10,426 pregnancy outcomes. The prevalence of preterm birth was 13% (range across sites: 10.4-20.7) and 4.1% of deliveries resulted in stillbirth (range: 3.1-5.5). The most commonly noted pregnancy complication was gestational hypertension, reported among 4.4% of pregnancies. Among pregnancies resulting in a live birth, 15.5% were low birthweight (range: 13.8-17.4) and 2.0% resulted in neonatal death (range:1.2-3.2). Suspected congenital anomalies were noted in 1.2% of pregnancies. This study provides systematically collected data on background rates of pregnancy outcomes, pregnancy complications and neonatal outcomes that can be used as a reference in support of ongoing HIV prevention studies. In addition, estimates from this study provide important background data for future studies of investigational products evaluated in pregnancy in these urban settings.

Effect of injectable progestin-only contraceptives, depot medroxyprogesterone acetate and norethisterone enanthate, on cytokine production during T-cell activation.

PROBLEM: There is paucity of human data about the effects of depot medroxyprogesterone (DMPA) and norethisterone enanthate (Net-En) use on systemic immune function, which may have implications for reproductive tract infection susceptibility and transmissibility. We sought to evaluate the impact of injectable contraceptive use on T-cell responsiveness using T cells exposed in vivo and tested ex vivo. METHODS: Peripheral blood mononuclear cells were obtained from healthy, HIV-negative women after 30, 90 and 180 days of DMPA, norethisterone enanthate (Net-En) or copper intrauterine device (Cu-IUD) contraceptive use. Cells were stimulated ex vivo with phorbol myristate acetate and ionomycin, stained and analysed using flow cytometry. Mixed-effects linear models were used to evaluate change in proportions of T cells producing IFN-γ, TNF-α, IL-4 and IL-13. RESULTS: Compared with baseline, decreased proportions of IFN-γ-producing CD4+ and CD8+ T cells (p = .003, p = .006, respectively) and TNF-α-producing CD4+ and CD8+ T cells (p = .039, p = .034, respectively) were observed after 180 days of DMPA use. Decreased IL-4-producing CD4+ and CD8+ T cells (p = .045 and p = .024, respectively) were noted after 180 days of Net-En use. Decreased IL-4-producing CD4+ T cells were observed after 30 days (p = .035) and not after 180 days of DMPA use (p = .49). There were no changes in proportion of T cells producing IL-13 in DMPA users, nor any changes in IFN-γ, TNF-α and IL-13 in Net-En and Cu-IUD users. CONCLUSION: In vivo exposure of CD4+ and CD8+ T cells to typical pharmacologic concentrations of DMPA does not cause broad suppression to stimuli; however, depletion of specific cytokine-producing T cells may occur after prolonged DMPA use.

Safety, uptake, and use of a dapivirine vaginal ring for HIV-1 prevention in African women (HOPE): an open-label, extension study.

BACKGROUND: Two phase 3 clinical trials showed that use of a monthly vaginal ring containing 25 mg dapivirine was well tolerated and reduced HIV-1 incidence in women by approximately 30% compared with placebo. We aimed to evaluate use and safety of the dapivirine vaginal ring (DVR) in open-label settings with high background rates of HIV-1 infection, an important step for future implementation. METHODS: We did a phase 3B open-label extension trial of the DVR (MTN-025/HIV Open-label Prevention Extension [HOPE]). Women who were HIV-1-negative and had participated in the MTN-020/ASPIRE phase 3 trial were offered 12 months of access to the DVR at 14 clinical research centres in Malawi, South Africa, Uganda, and Zimbabwe. At each visit (monthly for 3 months, then once every 3 months), women chose whether or not to accept the offer of the ring. Used, returned rings were tested for residual amounts of dapivirine as a surrogate marker for adherence. HIV-1 serological testing was done at each visit. Dapivirine amounts in returned rings and HIV-1 incidence were compared with data from the ASPIRE trial, and safety was assessed. This study is registered with ClinicalTrials.gov, NCT02858037. FINDINGS: Between July 16, 2016, and Oct 10, 2018, of 1756 women assessed for eligibility, 1456 were enrolled and participated in the study. Median age was 31 years (IQR 27-37). At baseline, 1342 (92·2%) women chose to take the DVR; ring acceptance was more than 79% at each visit up until 12 months and 936 (73·2%) of 1279 chose to take the ring at all visits. 12 530 (89·3%) of 14 034 returned rings had residual dapivirine amounts consistent with some use during the previous month (>0·9 mg released) and the mean dapivirine amount released was greater than in the ASPIRE trial (by 0·21 mg; p<0·0001). HIV-1 incidence was 2·7 per 100 person-years (95% CI 1·9-3·8, 35 infections), compared with an expected incidence of 4·4 per 100 person-years (3·2-5·8) among a population matched on age, site, and presence of a sexually transmitted infection from the placebo group of ASPIRE. No serious adverse events or grade 3 or higher adverse events observed were assessed as related to the DVR. INTERPRETATION: High uptake and persistent use in this open-label extension study support the DVR as an HIV-1 prevention option for women. With an increasing number of HIV-1 prophylaxis choices on the horizon, these results suggest that the DVR will be an acceptable and practical option for women in Africa. FUNDING: The Microbicide Trials Network and the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, The Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, and the National Institute of Mental Health, all components of the US National Institutes of Health.

The incidence of HIV among women recruited during late pregnancy and followed up for six years after childbirth in Zimbabwe.

BACKGROUND: HIV incidence is a useful tool for improving the targeting of populations for interventions and assessing the effectiveness of prevention strategies. A study in Harare, Zimbabwe reported cumulative incidences of 3.4% (3.0-3.8) and 6.5% (5.7-7.4) among post-partum women followed for 12 and 24 months respectively between 1997 and 2001. According to a Government report on HIV the prevalence of HIV fell from about 30% in 1999 to 14% in 2008. The purpose of this study was to determine the incidence of HIV-1 among women enrolled during late pregnancy and followed for six years after childbirth and to identify risk factors associated with acquisition of HIV. METHODS: HIV-uninfected pregnant women around 36 weeks gestation were enrolled from primary health care clinics in peri-urban settlements around Harare and followed-up for up to six years after childbirth. At every visit a questionnaire was interview-administered to obtain socio-demographic data and sexual history since the previous visit. A genital examination was performed followed by the collection of biological samples. RESULTS: Of the 552 HIV-uninfected women 444 (80.4%) were seen at least twice during the six years follow-up and 39 acquired HIV, resulting in an incidence (95% CI) of 2.3/100 woman-years-at-risk (wyar) (1.1-4.1). The incidence over the first nine months post-partum was 5.7/100 wyar (3.3-8.1). A greater proportion of teenagers (15.3%) contributed to a high incidence rate of 2.9/100 (0.6-8.7) wyar. In multivariate analysis lower education of participant, RR 2.1 (1.1-4.3) remained significantly associated with HIV acquisition. Other risk factors associated with acquisition of HIV-1 in univariate analysis were young age at sexual debut, RR 2.3, (1.0-5.6) and having children with different fathers, RR 2.7(1.3-5.8). Women that knew that their partners had other sexual partners were about four times more likely to acquire HIV, RR 3.8 (1.3-11.2). CONCLUSION: The incidence of HIV was high during the first nine months after childbirth. Time of seroconversion, age and educational level of seroconverter are important factors that must be considered when designing HIV intervention strategies.

Zim CHIC: A cohort study of immune changes in the female genital tract associated with initiation and use of contraceptives.

PROBLEM: Contraceptive hormones are systemically active, potent, and likely to invoke biological responses other than known fertility regulation impacts. We hypothesized that initiation of depot medroxyprogesterone acetate (DMPA) would increase genital HIV-target-cells and soluble immune mediators compared with baseline and initiation of other contraceptive methods. METHOD OF STUDY: We collected cervical cytobrushes and cervicovaginal fluid from healthy Zimbabwean women aged 18-34 to assess immune cell populations, cytokines, and innate anti-HIV activity at baseline and after 30, 90, and 180 days use of DMPA (n = 38), norethisterone enanthate (n = 41), medroxyprogesterone acetate/estradiol cypionate (n = 36), levonorgestrel implant (n = 43), etonogestrel implant (n = 47), or copper intrauterine device (Cu-IUD) (n = 45). Cells were quantified by flow cytometry, cytokines were detected by multiplex assays, and innate anti-HIV activity was assessed by in vitro HIV challenge. RESULTS: Compared to baseline, the number of cervical HIV target cells (#CD4 cells P < .04 and #CD11c cells P < .04), the concentration of the inflammatory cytokine IL-1ß (P < .01), and the innate in vitro anti-HIV activity (P < .001) significantly decreased following DMPA initiation. In Cu-IUD users, genital HIV target cells increased (#CD4 cells P < .001, #CD4CCR5 cells P = .02, #CD4CD69 cells P < .001, #CD8CD69 P = .01, and #CD11c cells P = .003) at day 30 and resolved by day 180. IFN-γ (P < .001), IL-1ß (P < .001), IL-6 (P < .001), IL-8 (P < .001), IL-10 (P < .01), and RANTES (P < .001) were also significantly increased at day 30. Minimal alterations were observed following initiation of subdermal implantable contraceptives. CONCLUSIONS: This head-to-head study compared six contraceptives and found increased HIV target cells and cervical inflammation temporally associated with Cu-IUD initiation. Use of hormonal contraception, including DMPA, did not increase cervical HIV target cells or inflammation. Clinical Trial Number: NCT02038335.

Depot medroxyprogesterone acetate and norethisterone enanthate differentially impact T-cell responses and expression of immunosuppressive markers.

PROBLEM: Injectable contraceptive use may impact immune cell responsiveness and susceptibility to infection. We measured responsiveness of T-cells from women before and after initiating depot medroxyprogesterone acetate (DMPA) or norethisterone enanthate (Net-En). METHOD OF STUDY: Peripheral blood mononuclear cells collected from women aged 18-34 years prior to, at steady state, and nadir concentrations after initiating DMPA (n = 30) or Net-En (n = 36) and from women initiating copper intrauterine device (CU-IUD; n = 32) were stimulated with phorbol myristate acetate and analyzed using flow cytometry. We evaluated percentage change in T-cells expressing programmed cell death-1 (PD-1) and cytotoxic T-lymphocyte associated protein-4 (CTLA-4). RESULTS: Compared to baseline, there were decreased numbers of CD4+CTLA4+ (P < .001) and CD8+CTLA4+ (P < .01) T-cells following ex vivo stimulation challenge at steady state DMPA concentrations and no differences at nadir concentrations (P = .781 and P = .463, respectively). In Net-En users, no differences in CD4+CTLA4+ T-cells at steady state (P = .087) and nadir concentrations (P = .217) were observed. DMPA users had fewer CD4+PD-1+ (P < .001) and CD8+PD-1+ (P < .001) T-cells at nadir concentrations. Number of CD4+PD-1+ and CD8+PD-1+ T-cells decreased at steady state concentration (P = .002 and P = .001, respectively) and at nadir concentrations after Net-En initiation (P < .001 and P < .001). In CU-IUD users, there were no changes in number of CD4+CTLA4+ (P = .426) and CD8+CTLA4+ (P = .169) and no changes in CD4+PD-1+ (P = .083) and CD8+PD-1+ (P = .936) compared to baseline. CONCLUSION: Activation of T-cells in response to ex vivo stimulation is suppressed at steady state DMPA concentration and resolves at nadir concentration, suggesting DMPA immunosuppressive effects may be transient.

Feasibility and Safety of IUD Insertion by Mid-Level Providers in Sub-Saharan Africa.

CONTEXT: The copper IUD is safe and effective, but underutilized in Sub-Saharan Africa, in part because of a lack of trained providers. The World Health Organization recommends training mid-level providers-including nurses and midwives-to insert IUDs; however, the safety of such task shifting has not been evaluated in Sub-Saharan Africa. METHODS: Data were drawn from baseline surveys and study charts of 535 sexually active women aged 18-45 who used a copper IUD while participating in an HIV-prevention clinical trial conducted from August 2012 through June 2015 in Malawi, South Africa, Uganda and Zimbabwe. IUDs were inserted by study physicians, nurses and midwives trained as part of the trial, and by local nonstudy providers. Chi-square and Fisher's exact tests were used to compare women's experiences of adverse events-such as irregular bleeding, pelvic pain or device expulsion-by provider type. RESULTS: Half (54%) of women reported experiencing an adverse event; the most common were irregular bleeding and pelvic pain (45% and 25%, respectively). Compared with women who had received an IUD from a study physician or study nurse, greater proportions of women who had received one from a nonstudy provider reported any adverse event (76% vs. 49% and 51%, respectively), irregular bleeding (57% vs. 41% and 45%) and pelvic pain (35% vs. 15% and 32%); the difference between study physicians and nurses was significant only for pelvic pain. Expulsion rates were comparable for study nurses and nonstudy providers (12.3 and 11.9 per 100 woman-years, respectively), but lower for study physicians (7.3 per 100 woman-years). CONCLUSIONS: The findings support task shifting of IUD insertion to mid-level providers to improve IUD access in Sub-Saharan Africa.

RESUMEN Contexto: Aunque el DIU de cobre es seguro y efectivo, está subutilizado en África subsahariana, en parte debido a la falta de proveedores de servicios de salud capacitados. La Organización Mundial de la Salud recomienda capacitar a los proveedores de nivel medio ­incluidas las enfermeras y parteras­ para insertar los DIU; sin embargo, la seguridad de tal cambio de tareas ha sido evaluada en África subsahariana. Métodos: Se obtuvieron datos de encuestas de línea de base y cuadros de un estudio de 535 mujeres sexualmente activas, de 18 a 45 años, que usaron un DIU de cobre en un ensayo clínico de prevención del VIH realizado entre agosto de 2012 y junio de 2015 en Malaui, Sudáfrica, Uganda y Zimbabue. Los DIU fueron insertados por médicos participantes en el estudio, enfermeras y parteras capacitadas como parte del ensayo, así como por proveedores de servicios de salud locales no relacionados con el estudio. Las pruebas exactas de Chi-cuadrado y Fisher se usaron para comparar las experiencias de las mujeres con eventos adversos ­como sangrado irregular, dolor pélvico o expulsión del dispositivo­ por tipo de proveedor. Resultados: La mitad (54%) de las mujeres reportaron haber experimentado algún evento adverso; los eventos más comunes fueron sangrado irregular y dolor pélvico (45% y 25%, respectivamente). En comparación con las mujeres que habían recibido un DIU de un médico o de una enfermera del estudio, una gran parte de las mujeres que lo habían recibido de un proveedor no relacionado con el estudio reportaron algún tipo de evento adverso (76% vs. 49% y 51%, respectivamente), sangrado irregular (57 % vs. 41% y 45%) y dolor pélvico (35% vs. 15% y 32%); La diferencia entre los médicos y las enfermeras del estudio fue significativa solo para el dolor pélvico. Las tasas de expulsión fueron comparables para las enfermeras del estudio y los proveedores no relacionados con el estudio (12.3 y 11.9 por 100 años-mujer, respectivamente), pero más bajas para los médicos del estudio (7.3 por 100 años-mujer). Conclusiones: Los hallazgos respaldan el cambio de tareas de inserción del DIU a proveedores de nivel medio para mejorar el acceso al DIU en África Subsahariana.

RÉSUMÉ Contexte: Bien qu'il soit sûr et efficace, le DIU au cuivre est sous-utilisé en Afrique subsaharienne, faute, en partie, de prestataires formés. L'Organisation mondiale de la Santé recommande la formation de prestataires de niveau intermédiaire ­ personnel infirmier et sages-femmes ­ pour la pose du DIU. La sécurité de cette délégation de tâches n'a cependant pas été évaluée en Afrique subsaharienne. Méthodes: Les données proviennent d'enquêtes de base et de graphiques d'étude concernant 535 femmes sexuellement actives âgées de 18 à 45 ans qui utilisaient un DIU au cuivre dans le cadre d'un essai clinique de prévention du VIH réalisé d'août 2012 à juin 2015 en Afrique du Sud, au Malawi, en Ouganda et au Zimbabwe. Les DIU avaient été posés par les médecins, infirmières et sages-femmes de l'étude, formés dans le cadre de l'essai, ainsi que par des prestataires locaux extérieurs à l'étude. Le test chi carré et la méthode exacte de Fisher ont servi à comparer l'expérience d'effets indésirables ­ tels que saignements irréguliers, douleurs pelviennes ou expulsion du DIU ­ vécus par les femmes suivant le type de prestataire. Résultats: La moitié (54%) des femmes ont signalé un effet indésirable, les plus courants étant les saignements irréguliers et les douleurs pelviennes (45% et 25%, respectivement). Par rapport aux femmes dont le DIU avait été posé par un médecin ou une infirmière de l'étude, de plus grandes proportions de celles qui avaient obtenu leur dispositif d'un prestataire extérieur à l'étude ont signalé un effet indésirable quelconque (76% contre 49% et 51%, respectivement), des saignements irréguliers (57% contre 41% et 45%) et des douleurs pelviennes (35% contre 15% et 32%). La différence entre les médecins et le personnel infirmier de l'étude n'est significative que pour les douleurs pelviennes. Les taux d'expulsion sont comparables pour les infirmières de l'étude et les prestataires extérieurs (12,3 et 11,9 pour 100 femmes-années, respectivement), mais il est moindre pour les médecins de l'étude (7,3 pour 100 femmes-années). Conclusions: Les résultats sont favorables à la délégation de la pose du DIU aux prestataires de niveau intermédiaire pour améliorer l'accès au DIU en Afrique subsaharienne.

Contraceptive method switching among women living in sub-Saharan Africa participating in an HIV-1 prevention trial: a prospective cohort study.

OBJECTIVE: Long-acting reversible contraceptive (LARC) method uptake has been low within the context of HIV prevention trials. Within a multinational study (MTN-020/ASPIRE), the Contraceptive Action Team improved LARC accessibility and uptake. In this secondary analysis, we determined the rate of contraceptive method continuation among the women enrolled. STUDY DESIGN: ASPIRE was a randomized, double-blinded, placebo-controlled phase III safety and effectiveness study of the Dapivirine Vaginal Ring for HIV-1 prevention. Between 2012 and 2014, sexually active women aged 18-45 from Malawi, South Africa, Uganda and Zimbabwe were enrolled. All participants were required to use contraception for enrollment to the study and could choose between all highly effective contraceptive methods available in their respective countries. Women were seen monthly and could change methods at any time. Continuation rates from study enrollment to 6 and 12 months were determined. RESULTS: The overall contraceptive method continuation rate was 77% (1972/2551) at 6 months and 66% (1694/2551) at 12 months. The 6- and 12-month continuation rates were highest for implantable contraceptives (89%, 82%) followed by copper intrauterine device (83%, 77%). Rates of continuation for injectable contraceptives depot medroxyprogesterone acetate (80%, 69%) and norethisterone enanthate (71%, 54%) were higher than for oral contraceptives, which were continued at 47% at 6 months and 35% at 12 months. The continuation rates of all methods did not differ by users with and without previous contraceptive experience. CONCLUSIONS: LARC methods have the highest rates of continuation at 12 months and should be routinely offered in the context of HIV prevention trials in sub-Saharan Africa. IMPLICATIONS: Intrauterine devices and contraceptive implant continuation was high at 12 months among women participating in an HIV prevention trial in sub-Saharan Africa and LARCs and should be routinely offered.

Misreporting of contraceptive hormone use in clinical research participants.

OBJECTIVE: Researchers traditionally rely on participant self-report for contraceptive use. We hypothesized that self-reported contraceptive use by clinical research participants may disagree with objectively measured hormonal status. STUDY DESIGN: We enrolled women in Harare, Zimbabwe, aged 18-34, who by self-report had not used hormonal or intrauterine contraception for >30 days, or depot medroxyprogesterone acetate for >10 months, into a study designed to assess biologic changes with contraceptive initiation and use. Blood samples obtained at enrollment and each follow-up visit (N=1630 from 447 participants) were evaluated by mass spectrometry for exogenous hormones. We individually interviewed a subset of participants (n=20) with discrepant self-reported and measured serum hormones to better understand nondisclosure of contraceptive use. RESULTS: Discrepant with self-reported nonuse of hormonal contraception, synthetic progestogens were detectable in 120/447 (27%, 95% confidence interval 23%-31%) enrolled women. Measured exogenous hormones consistent with use of contraceptive pills (n=102), injectables (n=20) and implants (n=3) were detected at enrollment, with 7 women likely using >1 contraceptive. In-depth interviews revealed that participants understood the requirement to be hormone free at enrollment (100%). Most (85%) cited partner noncooperation with condoms/withdrawal and/or pregnancy concerns as major reasons for nondisclosed contraceptive use. All interviewed women (100%) cited access to health care as a primary motivation for study participation. Of participants who accurately reported nonuse of hormonal contraception at enrollment, 41/327 (12.5%) had objective evidence of nonstudy progestin use at follow-up that disagreed with self-reported nonuse. CONCLUSIONS: Women joining contraceptive research studies may misrepresent their use of nonstudy contraceptive hormones at baseline and follow-up. Objective measures of hormone use are needed to ensure that study population exposures are accurately categorized. IMPLICATIONS STATEMENT: Among Zimbabwean women participating in a contraceptive research study, 27% had objective evidence of use of nonstudy contraceptives at enrollment that disagreed with self-report. Studies that rely on self-report to identify contraceptive hormone exposure could suffer from significant misclassification.

Implementation of a prospective pregnancy registry for antiretroviral based HIV prevention trials.

BACKGROUND: Safety data on pregnancy and fetal outcomes among women in HIV prevention trials are urgently needed to inform use of effective antiretroviral agents for HIV prevention. We describe an effective, efficient, and novel method to prospectively collect perinatal safety data concurrent with on-going parent clinical trials. METHODS: The Microbicide Trials Network (MTN)-016 study is a multinational prospective pregnancy exposure registry designed to capture pregnancy and neonatal outcomes. Studies currently contributing data to this registry included phase I and II safety trials with planned exposures to candidate HIV prevention agents, as well as phase IIB and III efficacy trials capturing data on pregnancy and infant outcomes following inadvertent fetal exposure during study participation. RESULTS: To date, participants from two phase I studies and two effectiveness trials have participated in MTN-016, resulting in 420 pregnant women and 381 infants enrolled. Infant retention has been high, with 329 of 381 (86%) infants completing the 12-month follow-up visit. CONCLUSION: In a research setting context, it is feasible to establish and implement a prospective, multinational HIV chemoprophylaxis pregnancy registry that will generate pregnancy exposure data in a robust fashion.

HIV disease progression among women following seroconversion during a tenofovir-based HIV prevention trial.

BACKGROUND: Little is known regarding HIV disease outcomes among individuals who become infected with HIV while receiving antiretroviral medications for prevention. We compared HIV disease parameters among women who seroconverted while receiving tenofovir-containing oral or vaginal pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) to placebo. METHODS: Participants with HIV seroconversion in a randomized placebo-controlled trial of oral tenofovir, oral tenofovir/emtricitabine, and vaginal tenofovir gel (MTN-003) were followed in a longitudinal cohort study (MTN-015). The effect of oral and vaginal tenofovir-containing PrEP on HIV disease progression was compared to placebo using linear mixed effects and Cox proportional hazard models, as appropriate. Additional analyses were performed to compare the outcomes among participants with detectable tenofovir or emtricitabine in plasma at the first quarterly visit in MTN-003. RESULTS: A total of 224 participants were included in the analysis; 93% from South Africa and 94% clade C virus. No differences in HIV RNA at steady state or the trajectory over 12 months were observed for each active arm compared to placebo; tenofovir gel recipients had higher CD4+ T cell counts (722 vs 596 cells/mm3; p = 0.02) at 90 days after estimated HIV seroconversion and higher average rates of change over 12 months compared to placebo (-181 vs -92 cells/mm3 per year; p = 0.08). With a median follow-up of 31 months, no significant differences were observed for time to CD4+ T cell count ≤350 cells/mm3, or the composite endpoint of CD4+ T cells ≤350 cells/mm3, initiation of antiretroviral therapy or death for each active arm compared to placebo. Additionally, there were no significant differences in the HIV RNA or CD4+ T cell counts at baseline, the change to month 12, or any disease progression outcomes among participants with oral drug detected and no oral drug detected compared to placebo. CONCLUSIONS: No clinically significant differences in HIV seroconversion outcomes were observed among women randomized to tenofovir-containing oral or vaginal PrEP regimens, however low overall adherence limits the generalizability of these findings.