Drosophila Condensin II subunit Chromosome-associated protein D3 regulates cell fate determination through non-cell-autonomous signaling.

The pattern of the Drosophila melanogaster adult wing is heavily influenced by the expression of proteins that dictate cell fate decisions between intervein and vein during development. dSRF (Blistered) expression in specific regions of the larval wing disc promotes intervein cell fate, whereas EGFR activity promotes vein cell fate. Here, we report that the chromatin-organizing protein CAP-D3 acts to dampen dSRF levels at the anterior/posterior boundary in the larval wing disc, promoting differentiation of cells into the anterior crossvein. CAP-D3 represses KNOT expression in cells immediately adjacent to the anterior/posterior boundary, thus blocking KNOT-mediated repression of EGFR activity and preventing cell death. Maintenance of EGFR activity in these cells depresses dSRF levels in the neighboring anterior crossvein progenitor cells, allowing them to differentiate into vein cells. These findings uncover a novel transcriptional regulatory network influencing Drosophila wing vein development, and are the first to identify a Condensin II subunit as an important regulator of EGFR activity and cell fate determination in vivo.

Chromatin regulators in neurodevelopment and disease: Analysis of fly neural circuits provides insights: Networks of chromatin regulators and transcription factors underlie Drosophila neurogenesis and cognitive defects in intellectual disability and neuropsychiatric disorder models.

Disruptions in chromatin regulator genes are frequently the cause of neurodevelopmental and neuropsychiatric disorders. Chromatin regulators are widely expressed in the brain, yet symptoms suggest that specific circuits can be preferentially altered when they are mutated. Using Drosophila allows targeted manipulation of chromatin regulators in defined neuronal classes, lineages, or circuits, revealing their roles in neuronal precursor self-renewal, dendrite and axon targeting, neuron diversification, and the tuning of developmental signaling pathways. Phenotypes arising from chromatin regulator disruption are context dependent - defined by interaction networks between the regulators, transcription factors, and chromatin remodeling complex partners. Future challenges are to determine the complexity of partner interactions, and to ascertain the degree to which cognitive deficits are due to loss of chromatin regulator activity in building a circuit or in maintaining homeostasis and activity within it.

An MLL-dependent network sustains hematopoiesis.

The histone methyltransferase Mixed Lineage Leukemia (MLL) is essential to maintain hematopoietic stem cells and is a leukemia protooncogene. Although clustered homeobox genes are well-characterized targets of MLL and MLL fusion oncoproteins, the range of Mll-regulated genes in normal hematopoietic cells remains unknown. Here, we identify and characterize part of the Mll-dependent transcriptional network in hematopoietic stem cells with an integrated approach by using conditional loss-of-function models, genomewide expression analyses, chromatin immunoprecipitation, and functional rescue assays. The Mll-dependent transcriptional network extends well beyond the previously appreciated Hox targets, is comprised of many characterized regulators of self-renewal, and contains target genes that are both dependent and independent of the MLL cofactor, Menin. Interestingly, PR-domain containing 16 emerged as a target gene that is uniquely effective at partially rescuing Mll-deficient hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells. This work highlights the tissue-specific nature of regulatory networks under the control of MLL/Trithorax family members and provides insight into the distinctions between the participation of MLL in normal hematopoiesis and in leukemia.

The Prdm family: expanding roles in stem cells and development.

Members of the Prdm family are characterized by an N-terminal PR domain that is related to the SET methyltransferase domain, and multiple zinc fingers that mediate sequence-specific DNA binding and protein-protein interactions. Prdm factors either act as direct histone methyltransferases or recruit a suite of histone-modifying enzymes to target promoters. In this way, they function in many developmental contexts to drive and maintain cell state transitions and to modify the activity of developmental signalling pathways. Here, we provide an overview of the structure and function of Prdm family members and discuss the roles played by these proteins in stem cells and throughout development.

Fascin controls neuronal class-specific dendrite arbor morphology.

The branched morphology of dendrites represents a functional hallmark of distinct neuronal types. Nonetheless, how diverse neuronal class-specific dendrite branches are generated is not understood. We investigated specific classes of sensory neurons of Drosophila larvae to address the fundamental mechanisms underlying the formation of distinct branch types. We addressed the function of fascin, a conserved actin-bundling protein involved in filopodium formation, in class III and class IV sensory neurons. We found that the terminal branchlets of different classes of neurons have distinctive dynamics and are formed on the basis of molecularly separable mechanisms; in particular, class III neurons require fascin for terminal branching whereas class IV neurons do not. In class III neurons, fascin controls the formation and dynamics of terminal branchlets. Previous studies have shown that transcription factor combinations define dendrite patterns; we find that fascin represents a downstream component of such programs, as it is a major effector of the transcription factor Cut in defining class III-specific dendrite morphology. Furthermore, fascin defines the morphological distinction between class III and class IV neurons. In fact, loss of fascin function leads to a partial conversion of class III neurons to class IV characteristics, while the reverse effect is obtained by fascin overexpression in class IV neurons. We propose that dedicated molecular mechanisms underlie the formation and dynamics of distinct dendrite branch types to elicit the accurate establishment of neuronal circuits.

Filleting and Immunostaining of Larvae to Visualize Drosophila Dendritic Arborization Neuron Dendrite Arbors.

Nervous system formation involves the specification of neuron identity, followed by precise circuit construction; this includes controlling the pattern and connectivity of the dendrite arbor. Drosophila dendritic arborization (da) neurons are a powerful experimental model for studying dendrite arbor differentiation mechanisms. da neuron dendrite arbors elaborate in two dimensions in the body wall, making it easy to visualize them with high resolution. Immunostaining is a conventional method to examine arbor pattern and the subcellular distribution of proteins. In addition, images acquired from immunostaining protocols can amplify weaker signals from fluorescent transgenic proteins and be used to quantify protein expression levels. This protocol describes a broadly applicable dissection, fixation, and immunostaining approach in Drosophila larvae.

Culture of Larval and Pupal Drosophila Dendritic Arborization Neurons.

Drosophila dendritic arborization (da) neurons are a powerful model for studying neuronal differentiation and sensory functions. A general experimental strength of this model is the examination of the neurons in situ in the body wall. However, for some analyses, restricted access to the neurons in situ causes difficulty; da neuron cultures circumvent this. Here, we outline isolation and culture techniques for larval and pupal da neurons. Investigators can use these cultures to perform high-resolution imaging, quantitative immunohistochemistry, and electrophysiology.

Mosaic Analysis with a Repressible Cell Marker (MARCM) Clone Generation in Drosophila Dendritic Arborization Neurons.

Mosaic analysis with a repressible cell marker (MARCM) is used in Drosophila research to create labeled homozygous mutant clones of cells in an otherwise heterozygous fly. It allows the study of the effect of embryonically lethal genes and the determination of cell autonomy for a mutant phenotype. When used in dendritic arborization (da) neurons with a fluorescent protein targeted to the plasma membrane, MARCM allows the identification of homozygous mutant neurons and clear imaging of the dendrite arbor in both live and fixed preparations. Previous protocols that outlined experimental procedures to create MARCM clones in da neurons used a heat shock promoter to drive Flippase (FLP) expression; such an approach requires laborious embryo collection and heat shock steps, and it creates clones in other tissues besides the da neurons. The updated protocol described here outlines the use of FLP expression driven by a sensory organ precursor promoter (SOP-FLP); it requires no embryo collection or manipulation steps and creates clones exclusively in the peripheral sensory neuron lineage.

Use of DeTerm for Automated Drosophila Dendrite Arbor Terminal Counts.

Neurons have a complex dendritic architecture that governs information flow through a circuit. Manual quantification of dendritic arbor morphometrics is time-consuming and can be inaccurate. Automated quantification systems such as DeTerm help to overcome these limitations. DeTerm is a software tool that automatically recognizes dendrite branch terminals with high precision. It uses an artificial neural network to label the terminals, count them, and provide each terminal's positional data. DeTerm can recognize the dendritic terminals of Drosophila dendritic arborization (da) neurons, and it can also examine other types of neurons, including mouse Purkinje cells. It is freely available and works on Mac, Windows, and Linux. Here, we describe the use of DeTerm.

Mounting of Embryos, Larvae, and Pupae for Live Drosophila Dendritic Arborization Neuron Imaging.

Live imaging approaches are essential for monitoring how neurons go through a coordinated series of differentiation steps in their native mechanical and chemical environment. These imaging approaches also allow the study of dynamic subcellular processes such as cytoskeleton remodeling and the movement of organelles. Drosophila dendritic arborization (da) neurons are a powerful experimental system for studying the dendrite arbor in live animals. da neurons are located on the internal surface of the body wall and, therefore, are easily accessible for imaging. Moreover, many genetic tools target da neurons to disrupt genes or proteins of interest and allow the investigator to visualize fluorescent markers and endogenously tagged proteins in the neurons. This protocol introduces methods for preparing and mounting intact Drosophila embryos, larvae, and pupae, allowing live imaging of dynamic cellular processes in da neurons.

Study of Dendrite Differentiation Using Drosophila Dendritic Arborization Neurons.

Neurons receive, process, and integrate inputs. These operations are organized by dendrite arbor morphology, and the dendritic arborization (da) neurons of the Drosophila peripheral sensory nervous system are an excellent experimental model for examining the differentiation processes that build and shape the dendrite arbor. Studies in da neurons are enabled by a wealth of fly genetic tools that allow targeted neuron manipulation and labeling of the neuron's cytoskeletal or organellar components. Moreover, as da neuron dendrite arbors cover the body wall, they are highly accessible for live imaging analysis of arbor patterning. Here, we outline the structure and function of different da neuron types and give examples of how they are used to elucidate central mechanisms of dendritic arbor formation.

Convergent local identity and topographic projection of sensory neurons.

Development of sensory neural circuits requires concurrent specification of neuron modality, position, and topographic projections. However, little is understood about how controls over these distinct parameters can unify in a single developmental sequence. To address this question, we have used the nociceptive class IV dendritic arborization neurons in the Drosophila larval body wall as an excellent model that allows precise spatiotemporal dissection of developmental-genetic control over sensory neuron positioning and wiring, and subsequent analysis of its functional significance for sensorimotor behavior. The class IV neurogenetic program is intrinsic to the anterior domain of the embryonic parasegment epithelium. Along the ventrolateral axis of this domain, nociceptive neuron induction requirements depend upon location. Near the ventral midline, both Hedgehog and Epithelial growth factor receptor signaling are required for class IV neurogenesis. In addition, close to the ventral midline, class IV neurogenesis is preceded by expression of the Iroquois factor Mirror that promotes local nociceptive neuron differentiation. Remarkably, Mirror is also required for the proper routing of class IV topographic axonal projections across the midline of the CNS. Manipulation of Mirror activity in class IV neurons retargeted axonal projections and caused concordant changes in larval nociceptive escape behavior. These findings indicate that convergent sensory neuron specification, local differentiation, and topographic wiring are mediated by Mirror, and they suggest an integrated paradigm for position-sensitive neural development.

Transcription factor encoding of neuron subtype: Strategies that specify arbor pattern.

Dendrite and axon arbors form scaffolds that connect a neuron to its partners; they are patterned to support the specific connectivity and computational requirements of each neuron subtype. Transcription factor networks control the specification of neuron subtypes, and the consequent diversification of their stereotyped arbor patterns during differentiation. We outline how the differentiation trajectories of stereotyped arbors are shaped by hierarchical deployment of precursor cell and postmitotic transcription factors. These transcription factors exert modular control over the dendrite and axon features of a single neuron, create spatial and functional compartmentalization of an arbor, instruct implementation of developmental patterning rules, and exert operational control over the cell biological processes that construct an arbor.

Selection of behaviors and segmental coordination during larval locomotion is disrupted by nuclear polyglutamine inclusions in a new Drosophila Huntington's disease-like model.

Huntington's disease is an autosomal dominant neurodegenerative disorder that is caused by abnormal expansion of a polyglutamine tract in the huntingtin protein, resulting in intracellular aggregate formation and neurodegeneration. How neuronal cells are affected by such a polyglutamine tract expansion remains obscure. To dissect the ways in which polyglutamine expansion can cause neural dysfunction, the authors generated Drosophila transgenic strains expressing either a nuclear targeted or cytoplasmic form of pathogenic (NHtt-152Q(NLS), NHtt-152Q), or nonpathogenic (NHtt-18Q(NLS), NHtt-18Q) N-terminal human huntingtin. These proteins were expressed in the dendritic arborization neurons of the larval peripheral nervous system and their effects on neuronal survival, morphology, and larval locomotion were examined. The authors found that NHtt-152Q(NLS) larvae had altered dendrite morphology and larval locomotion, whereas NHtt-152Q, NHtt-18Q(NLS), and NHtt-18Q larvae did not. Furthermore, the authors examined the physiological defect underlying this disrupted larval locomotion in detail by recording spontaneous ongoing segmental nerve activity. NHtt-152Q(NLS) larvae displayed uncoordinated activity between anterior and posterior segments. Moreover, anterior segments had shorter bursts and longer interburst intervals in NHtt-152Q(NLS) larvae than in NHtt-18Q(NLS) larvae, whereas posterior segments had longer bursts and shorter interburst intervals. These results suggest that the pathogenic protein disrupts neuron function without inducing cell death, and describe how this dysfunction leads to a locomotor defect. These results also suggest that sensory inputs are necessary for the coordination of anterior and posterior body parts during locomotion. From these analyses the authors show that examination of motor behaviors in the Drosophila larvae is a powerful new model to dissect non-cell-lethal mechanisms of mutant Htt toxicity.

Visualizing Cell Cycle Phase Organization and Control During Neural Lineage Elaboration.

In neural precursors, cell cycle regulators simultaneously control both progression through the cell cycle and the probability of a cell fate switch. Precursors act in lineages, where they transition through a series of cell types, each of which has a unique molecular identity and cellular behavior. Thus, investigating links between cell cycle and cell fate control requires simultaneous identification of precursor type and cell cycle phase, as well as an ability to read out additional regulatory factor expression or activity. We use a combined FUCCI-EdU labelling protocol to do this, and then applied it to the embryonic olfactory neural lineage, in which the spatial position of a cell correlates with its precursor identity. Using this integrated model, we find the CDKi p27KIP1 has different regulation relative to cell cycle phase in neural stem cells versus intermediate precursors. In addition, Hes1, which is the principle transcriptional driver of neural stem cell self-renewal, surprisingly does not regulate p27KIP1 in this cell type. Rather, Hes1 indirectly represses p27KIP1 levels in the intermediate precursor cells downstream in the lineage. Overall, the experimental model described here enables investigation of cell cycle and cell fate control linkage from a single precursor through to a lineage systems level.

Distinct Microtubule Organizing Center Mechanisms Combine to Generate Neuron Polarity and Arbor Complexity.

Dendrite and axon arbor wiring patterns determine the connectivity and computational characteristics of a neuron. The identities of these dendrite and axon arbors are created by differential polarization of their microtubule arrays, and their complexity and pattern are generated by the extension and organization of these arrays. We describe how several molecularly distinct microtubule organizing center (MTOC) mechanisms function during neuron differentiation to generate and arrange dendrite and axon microtubules. The temporal and spatial organization of these MTOCs generates, patterns, and diversifies arbor wiring.

Atypical Myosin Tunes Dendrite Arbor Subdivision.

Dendrite arbor pattern determines the functional characteristics of a neuron. It is founded on primary branch structure, defined through cell intrinsic and transcription-factor-encoded mechanisms. Developing arbors have extensive acentrosomal microtubule dynamics, and here, we report an unexpected role for the atypical actin motor Myo6 in creating primary branch structure by specifying the position, polarity, and targeting of these events. We carried out in vivo time-lapse imaging of Drosophila adult sensory neuron differentiation, integrating machine-learning-based quantification of arbor patterning with molecular-level tracking of cytoskeletal remodeling. This revealed that Myo6 and the transcription factor Knot regulate transient surges of microtubule polymerization at dendrite tips; they drive retrograde extension of an actin filament array that specifies anterograde microtubule polymerization and guides these microtubules to subdivide the tip into multiple branches. Primary branches delineate functional compartments; this tunable branching mechanism is key to define and diversify dendrite arbor compartmentalization.

Sequential activation of transcriptional repressors promotes progenitor commitment by silencing stem cell identity genes.

Stem cells that indirectly generate differentiated cells through intermediate progenitors drives vertebrate brain evolution. Due to a lack of lineage information, how stem cell functionality, including the competency to generate intermediate progenitors, becomes extinguished during progenitor commitment remains unclear. Type II neuroblasts in fly larval brains divide asymmetrically to generate a neuroblast and a progeny that commits to an intermediate progenitor (INP) identity. We identified Tailless (Tll) as a master regulator of type II neuroblast functional identity, including the competency to generate INPs. Successive expression of transcriptional repressors functions through Hdac3 to silence tll during INP commitment. Reducing repressor activity allows re-activation of Notch in INPs to ectopically induce tll expression driving supernumerary neuroblast formation. Knocking-down hdac3 function prevents downregulation of tll during INP commitment. We propose that continual inactivation of stem cell identity genes allows intermediate progenitors to stably commit to generating diverse differentiated cells during indirect neurogenesis.

Growth cone-localized microtubule organizing center establishes microtubule orientation in dendrites.

A polarized arrangement of neuronal microtubule arrays is the foundation of membrane trafficking and subcellular compartmentalization. Conserved among both invertebrates and vertebrates, axons contain exclusively 'plus-end-out' microtubules while dendrites contain a high percentage of 'minus-end-out' microtubules, the origins of which have been a mystery. Here we show that in Caenorhabditis elegans the dendritic growth cone contains a non-centrosomal microtubule organizing center (MTOC), which generates minus-end-out microtubules along outgrowing dendrites and plus-end-out microtubules in the growth cone. RAB-11-positive endosomes accumulate in this region and co-migrate with the microtubule nucleation complex γ-TuRC. The MTOC tracks the extending growth cone by kinesin-1/UNC-116-mediated endosome movements on distal plus-end-out microtubules and dynein clusters this advancing MTOC. Critically, perturbation of the function or localization of the MTOC causes reversed microtubule polarity in dendrites. These findings unveil the endosome-localized dendritic MTOC as a critical organelle for establishing axon-dendrite polarity.

MTOC Organization and Competition During Neuron Differentiation.

Neurons are polarized cells with long branched axons and dendrites. Microtubule generation and organization machineries are crucial to grow and pattern these complex cellular extensions. Microtubule organizing centers (MTOCs) concentrate the molecular machinery for templating microtubules, stabilizing the nascent polymer, and organizing the resultant microtubules into higher-order structures. MTOC formation and function are well described at the centrosome, in the spindle, and at interphase Golgi; we review these studies and then describe recent results about how the machineries acting at these classic MTOCs are repurposed in the postmitotic neuron for axon and dendrite differentiation. We further discuss a constant tug-of-war interplay between different MTOC activities in the cell and how this process can be used as a substrate for transcription factor-mediated diversification of neuron types.