Inhibition of the phytopathogenic fungus Fusarium proliferatum by volatile compounds produced by Pseudomonas.

The Fusarium head blight of grain cereals is a significant disease worldwide. In Argentina, high levels of contamination with Fusarium proliferatum have been found in crops. Many strains of the Pseudomonas genus antagonize the growth of fungi by different mechanisms, such as the production of antibiotics, siderophores, volatiles, and extracellular enzymes. In this work, we have designed a new system for studying the growth inhibition of F. proliferatum-namely by volatile compounds produced by Pseudomonas fluorescens MGR12. In both rich and minimal media, the bacterium released volatiles that negatively affected the mycelial growth of that phytopathogenic fungus. These bacterial compounds were analyzed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry, but only a few could be identified by comparing their mass spectra with the libraries of the National Institutes of Standards and Technology MS search.

Characterization of a phage-like pyocin from the plant growth-promoting rhizobacterium Pseudomonas fluorescens SF4c.

R-type and F-type pyocins are high-molecular-mass bacteriocins produced by Pseudomonas aeruginosa that resemble bacteriophage tails. They contain no head structures and no DNA, and are used as defence systems. In this report, we show that Pseudomonas fluorescens SF4c, a strain isolated from the wheat rhizosphere, produces a high-molecular-mass bacteriocin which inhibits the growth of closely related bacteria. A mutant deficient in production of this antimicrobial compound was obtained by transposon mutagenesis. Sequence analysis revealed that the transposon had disrupted a gene that we have named ptm, since it is homologous to that encoding phage tape-measure protein in P. fluorescens Pf0-1, a gene belonging to a prophage similar to phage-like pyocin from P. aeruginosa PAO1. In addition, we have identified genes from the SF4c pyocin cluster that encode a lytic system and regulatory genes. We constructed a non-polar ptm mutant of P. fluorescens SF4c. Heterologous complementation of this mutation restored the production of bacteriocin. Real-time PCR was used to analyse the expression of pyocin under different stress conditions. Bacteriocin was upregulated by mitomycin C, UV light and hydrogen peroxide, and was downregulated by saline stress. This report constitutes, to our knowledge, the first genetic characterization of a phage tail-like bacteriocin in a rhizosphere Pseudomonas strain.

Survival of native Pseudomonas in soil and wheat rhizosphere and antagonist activity against plant pathogenic fungi.

Survival of Pseudomonas sp. SF4c and Pseudomonas sp. SF10b (two plant-growth-promoting bacteria isolated from wheat rhizosphere) was investigated in microcosms. Spontaneous rifampicin-resistant mutants derived from these strains (showing both growth rate and viability comparable to the wild-strains) were used to monitor the strains in bulk soil and wheat rhizosphere. Studies were carried out for 60 days in pots containing non-sterile fertilized or non-fertilized soil. The number of viable cells of both mutant strains declined during the first days but then became established in the wheat rhizosphere at an appropriate cell density in both kinds of soil. Survival of the strains was better in the rhizosphere than in the bulk soil. Finally, the antagonism of Pseudomonas spp. against phytopatogenic fungi was evaluated in vitro. Both strains inhibited the mycelial growth (or the resistance structures) of some of the phytopathogenic fungi tested, though variation in this antagonism was observed in different media. This inhibition could be due to the production of extracellular enzymes, hydrogen cyanide or siderophores, signifying that these microorganisms might be applied in agriculture to minimize the utilization of chemical pesticides and fertilizers.

Disruption of dTDP-rhamnose biosynthesis modifies lipopolysaccharide core, exopolysaccharide production, and root colonization in Azospirillum brasilense.

The interaction between Azospirillum brasilense and plants is not fully understood, although several bacterial surface components like exopolysaccharides (EPS), flagella, and capsular polysaccharides are required for attachment and colonization. While in other plant-bacteria associations (Rhizobium-legume, Pseudomonas-potato), lipopolysaccharides (LPS) play a key role in the establishment of an effective association, their role in the root colonization by Azospirillum had not been determined. In this study, we isolated a Tn5 mutant of A. brasilense Cd (EJ1) with an apparently modified LPS core structure, non-mucoid colony morphology, increased EPS production, and affected in maize root colonization. A 3790-bp region revealed the presence of three complete open reading frames designated rmlC, rmlB and rmlD. The beginning of a fourth open reading frame was found and designated rmlA. These genes are organized in a cluster which shows homology to the cluster involved in the synthesis of dTDP-rhamnose in other bacteria. Additionally, the analysis of the monosaccharide composition of LPSs showed a diminution of rhamnose compared to the wild-type strain.

Effect of root exudates on the exopolysaccharide composition and the lipopolysaccharide profile of Azospirillum brasilense Cd under saline stress.

The effect of wheat root exudates on the exopolysaccharide (EPS) composition and the lipopolysaccharide (LPS) profile of Azospirillum brasilense Cd under saline stress was studied. EPS of A. brasilense Cd was composed of glucose (47%), mannose (3%), xylose (4%), fucose (28%), rhamnose (6%), arabinose (1%) and galactose (11%). Under saline stress, A. brasilense produced a totally different EPS, composed mainly of galactose. Root exudates induced changes in A. brasilense EPS composition only under normal conditions, consisting of higher amounts of arabinose and xylose compared with EPS of bacteria grown without root exudates. No changes were induced by root exudates when A. brasilense was grown under saline stress. Additionally, root exudates induced changes in the LPS profile, both under normal and stress conditions.

Genetic diversity and antifungal activity of native Pseudomonas isolated from maize plants grown in a central region of Argentina.

Pseudomonas strains producing antimicrobial secondary metabolites play an important role in the biocontrol of phytopathogenic fungi. In this study, native Pseudomonas spp. isolates were obtained from the rhizosphere, endorhizosphere and bulk soil of maize fields in Córdoba (Argentina) during both the vegetative and reproductive stages of plant growth. However, the diversity based on repetitive-element PCR (rep-PCR) and amplified ribosomal DNA restriction analysis (ARDRA) fingerprinting was not associated with the stage of plant growth. Moreover, the antagonistic activity of the native isolates against phytopathogenic fungi was evaluated in vitro. Several strains inhibited members of the genera Fusarium, Sclerotinia or Sclerotium and this antagonism was related to their ability to produce secondary metabolites. A phylogenetic analysis based on rpoB or 16S rRNA gene sequences confirmed that the isolates DGR22, MGR4 and MGR39 with high biocontrol potential belonged to the genus Pseudomonas. Some native strains of Pseudomonas were also able to synthesise indole acetic acid and to solubilise phosphate, thus possessing potential plant growth-promoting (PGPR) traits, in addition to their antifungal activity. It was possible to establish a relationship between PGPR or biocontrol activity and the phylogeny of the strains. The study allowed the creation of a local collection of indigenous Pseudomonas which could be applied in agriculture to minimise the utilisation of chemical pesticides and fertilisers.

Role of a serine-type D-alanyl-D-alanine carboxypeptidase on the survival of Ochrobactrum sp. 11a under ionic and hyperosmotic stress.

The plant growth-promoting rhizobacterium, Ochrobactrum sp. 11a displays a high intrinsic salinity tolerance and has been used in this work to study the molecular basis of bacterial responses to high concentrations of NaCl. A collection of Ochrobactrum sp. 11a mutants was generated by Tn5-B21 mutagenesis and screened for sensitivity to salinity. One clone, designated PBP and unable to grow on glutamate mannitol salt agar medium supplemented with 300 mM NaCl was selected and further characterized. The PBP mutant carries a single transposon insertion in a gene showing a high degree of identity to the serine-type d-alanyl-d-alanine carboxypeptidase gene of Ochrobactrum anthropi. Interestingly, the expression of this gene was shown to be upregulated by salt in the PBP mutant. Moreover, evidence is presented for the requirement of the gene product for adaptation to high-salt conditions as well as to overcome the toxicity of LiCl, KCl, sucrose, polyethylene glycol (PEG), AlCl(3), CuSO(4), and ZnSO(4). In addition to the altered tolerance to both ionic and osmotic stresses, the PBP mutant exhibited changes in colony and cell morphology, exopolysaccharide production, and an increased sensitivity to detergents.

Mutation in a D-alanine-D-alanine ligase of Azospirillum brasilense Cd results in an overproduction of exopolysaccharides and a decreased tolerance to saline stress.

Bacteria of the genus Azospirillum are free-living nitrogen-fixing, rhizobacteria that are found in close association with plant roots, where they exert beneficial effects on plant growth and yield in many crops of agronomic importance. Unlike other bacteria, little is known about the genetics and biochemistry of exopolysaccharides in Azospirillum brasilense. In an attempt to characterize genes associated with exopolysaccharides production, we generated an A. brasilense Cd Tn5 mutant that showed exopolysaccharides overproduction, decreased tolerance to saline conditions, altered cell morphology, and increased sensitivity to detergents. Genetic characterization showed that the Tn5 was inserted within a ddlB gene encoding for a d-alanine-d-alanine ligase, and located upstream of the ftsQAZ gene cluster responsible for cell division in different bacteria. Heterologous complementation of the ddlB Tn5 mutant restored the exopolysaccharides production to wild-type levels and the ability to grow in the presence of detergents, but not the morphology and growth characteristics of the wild-type bacteria, suggesting a polar effect of Tn5 on the fts genes. This result and the construction of a nonpolar ddlB mutant provide solid evidence of the presence of transcriptional coupling between a gene associated with peptidoglycan biosynthesis and the fts genes required to control cell division.

Biocontrol and PGPR features in native strains isolated from saline soils of Argentina.

A bacterial collection of approximately one thousand native strains, isolated from saline soils of Cordoba province (Argentina), was established. From this collection, a screening to identify those strains showing plant growth promotion and biocontrol activities, as well as salt tolerance, was performed. Eight native strains tolerant to 1 M: NaCl and displaying plant growth promotion and/or biocontrol features were selected for further characterization. Strains MEP(2 )18, MRP(2 )26, MEP(2 )11a, MEP(3 )1, and MEP(3 )3b significantly increased the growth of maize seedlings under normal and saline conditions, whereas isolates ARP(2 )3, AEP(1 )5, and ARP(2 )6 were able to increase the root dry weight of agropyre under saline conditions. On the other hand, strains MEP(2 )18 and ARP(2 )3 showed antagonistic activity against phytopathogenic fungi belonging to Sclerotinia and Fusarium genus. Antifungal activity was found in cell-free supernatants, and it was heat and protease resistant. Strains MEP(2)18 and ARP(2)3 were identified as Bacillus sp. and strains MEP(2)11a and MEP(3)3b as Ochrobactrum sp. according to the sequence analysis of 16S rRNA gene.

Effects of alpha-difluoromethylornithine on the cyclin A expression in Hep-2 cells

DFMO is an irreversible inhibitor of ornithine decarboxilase (ODC), the key enzyme in mammalian polyamine biosynthesis. The goal of this study was to determine the effects of DFMO on the expression of cyclin A at different stages of the cell cycle of Hep-2 cells. The cell cycle analysis, done by measuring the incorporation of thymidine in the cell DNA, revealed that DFMO produced a lower and constant level of that incorporation; this effect is probably due to the incapacity of the cells to culminate the phase S of the cell cycle. The expression of cyclin A increased in the phases S and G2 in control cells, almost disappearing in phase M. However, in DFMO treated cultures, the expression of cyclin A was increased in M and this effect remained still after 48 h treatment. We conclude that polyamines could exert an effect on the cyclin destruction mechanism, and the depletion caused by DFMO would alter this mechanism.