Balloon dilatation for paediatric airway stenosis: Evidence from the UK Airway Intervention Registry.

OBJECTIVES: To assess the safety and efficacy in routine clinical practice of balloon dilatation procedures in the treatment of paediatric airway stenosis. DESIGN: Observational data collection in prospective online research database. SETTING: Acute NHS Trusts with ENT department undertaking complex paediatric airway work. PARTICIPANTS: Children (<18) undergoing balloon dilatation treatment for airway stenosis. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Airway diameter, complications, hospital resource usage. RESULTS: Fifty-nine patients had 133 balloon procedures during 128 visits to 10 hospitals. Sixty-nine (52%) of balloon procedures were conducted with a tracheostomy. Intra-operative Cotton-Myer grade decreased in 43 (57%). The mean pre-balloon subglottic diameter was 4.2 [95% CI: 3.8 to 4.5] mm, and its rate of increase was 0.8 [0.5 to 1.2] mm per year modelled on 30 patients' long-term data. As the primary treatment of stenosis, the procedural success rate of balloon dilatation (n = 52) was 65% (22% with tracheostomy, 88% without tracheostomy), and 71% as an adjunct to open reconstructive surgery (n = 7). In the 64 hospital visits where a balloon procedure was conducted with a tracheostomy in place, only one in-hospital complication (lower respiratory tract infection) occurred. For those without a tracheostomy in place, in-hospital complications occurred in seven of 64 balloon hospital visits, all related to ongoing or worsening stenosis. Six out-of-hospital complications were deemed related to ongoing or worsening stenosis following the procedure, and two complications were a combination of lower respiratory infection and ongoing or worsening stenosis. CONCLUSIONS: Balloon dilation increases the size of the airway intraoperatively and is associated with long-term increase in airway diameter. Safety outcomes mostly relate to ongoing or worsening stenosis and are more common in patients without a tracheostomy.

Comparison of Consent Models in a Randomized Trial of Corticosteroids in Pediatric Septic Shock.

OBJECTIVES: To describe the use of deferred and prior informed consent models in the context of a low additional risk to standard of care, placebo-controlled randomized controlled trial of corticosteroids in pediatric septic shock. DESIGN: An observational substudy of consent processes in a randomized controlled trial of hydrocortisone versus placebo. SETTING: Seven tertiary level PICUs in Canada. PATIENTS: Children newborn to 17 years inclusive admitted to PICU with suspected septic shock between July 2014 and March 2016. INTERVENTIONS: None. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: Information on the number of families approached, consent rates obtained, and spontaneously volunteered reasons for nonparticipation were collected for both deferred and informed consent. The research ethics board of five of seven centers approved a deferred consent model; however, implementation criteria for use of this model varied across sites. The consent rate using deferred versus prior informed consent was significantly higher (83%; 35/42 vs 58%; 15/26; p = 0.02). The mean times from meeting inclusion criteria to randomization (1.8 ± 1.8 vs 3.6 ± 2.1 hr; p = 0.007) and study drug administration (3.4 ± 2.7 hr vs 4.8 ± 2.1 hr; p = 0.05) were significantly shorter with the use of deferred consent versus prior informed consent. No family member or research ethics board expressed concern following use of deferred consent. CONCLUSIONS: Deferred consent was acceptable in time-sensitive critical care research to most research ethics boards, families, and healthcare providers and resulted in higher consent rates and more efficient recruitment. Larger studies on deferred consent and consistency interpreting jurisdictional guidelines are needed to advance pediatric acute care.

A Randomized Controlled Trial of Corticosteroids in Pediatric Septic Shock: A Pilot Feasibility Study.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the feasibility of conducting a randomized controlled trial of corticosteroids in pediatric septic shock. DESIGN: Randomized, double-blind, placebo controlled trial. SETTING: Seven tertiary level PICUs in Canada. PATIENTS: Children newborn to 17 years old inclusive with suspected septic shock. INTERVENTION: Administration of IV hydrocortisone versus placebo until hemodynamic stability is achieved or for a maximum of 7 days. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: One hundred seventy-four patients were potentially eligible of whom 101 patients met eligibility criteria. Fifty-seven patients were randomized, and 49 patients (23 and 26 patients in the hydrocortisone and placebo groups, respectively) were included in the final analysis. The mean time from screening to randomization was 2.4 ± 2.1 hours and from screening to first dose of study drug was 3.8 ± 2.6 hours. Forty-two percent of potentially eligible patients (73/174) received corticosteroids prior to randomization: 38.5% (67/174) were already on corticosteroids for shock at the time of screening, and in 3.4% (6/174), the treating physician wished to administer corticosteroids. Six of 49 randomized patients (12.2%) received open-label steroids, three in each of the hydrocortisone and placebo groups. Time on vasopressors, days on mechanical ventilation, PICU and hospital length of stay, and the rate of adverse events were not statistically different between the two groups. CONCLUSIONS: This study suggests that a large randomized controlled trial on early use of corticosteroids in pediatric septic shock is potentially feasible. However, the frequent use of empiric corticosteroids in otherwise eligible patients remains a significant challenge. Knowledge translation activities, targeted recruitment, and alternative study designs are possible strategies to mitigate this challenge.

Striving for Optimum Noise-Decreasing Strategies in Critical Care: Initial Measurements and Observations.

To identify baseline sound levels, patterns of sound levels, and potential barriers and facilitators to sound level reduction. The study setting was neonatal and pediatric intensive care units in a tertiary care hospital. Participants were staff in both units and parents of currently hospitalized children or infants. One 24-hour sound measurements and one 4-hour sound measurement linked to observed sound events were conducted in each area of the center's neonatal intensive care unit. Two of each measurement type were conducted in the pediatric intensive care unit. Focus groups were conducted with parents and staff. Transcripts were analyzed with descriptive content analysis and themes were compared against results from quantitative measurements. Sound levels exceeded recommended standards at nearly every time point. The most common code was related to talking. Themes from focus groups included the critical care context and sound levels, effects of sound levels, and reducing sound levels-the way forward. Results are consistent with work conducted in other critical care environments. Staff and families realize that high sound levels can be a problem, but feel that the culture and context are not supportive of a quiet care space. High levels of ambient sound suggest that the largest changes in sound levels are likely to come from design and equipment purchase decisions. L10 and Lmax appear to be the best outcomes for measurement of behavioral interventions.

Experience of Circuit Survival in Extracorporeal Continuous Renal Replacement Therapy Using Small-Calibre Venous Cannulae.

OBJECTIVES: To describe an experience of circuit survival in extracorporeal continuous renal replacement therapy using small-calibre (< 7 French gauge [F]) venous cannulae. DESIGN: An observational study. SETTING: A multidisciplinary, university-affiliated PICU. SUBJECTS: Case note review of all continuous renal replacement therapy episodes (1998-2010), which used vascular access cannulae of an external diameter less than 7F, was performed. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: Forty-nine patients underwent continuous renal replacement therapy treatment during which circuit blood flow was delivered using either 5F or 6.5F double-lumen cannulae. One hundred thirty-nine circuits were employed (median per patient, 2; interquartile range, 1-3) in providing 4,903 hours of therapy (median duration of therapy, 43 hr; interquartile range, 22-86 hr); allowing for censoring, the median circuit survival time was 40 hours (95% CI, 28-66). Eighty-one circuits (58%) failed because of clotting/technical problems, equating to a circuit failure rate of 16.5 (95% CI, 13.3-20.5) per 1,000 hours of continuous renal replacement therapy. The probability of a circuit surviving 40 hours or greater was 50% with 43% (95% CI, 34-53%) expected to survive 60 hours or more. No significant relationship between circuit survival and the calibre of the cannula deployed was identified; however, placement of venous access in an internal jugular vein was associated with improved circuit survival. CONCLUSIONS: Contrary to previous reports, vascular access cannulae of a caliber less than 7F can support sufficiently prolonged continuous renal replacement therapy to make them a useful means of delivering renal support in neonates and small infants.

Coblation intracapsular tonsillectomy in a paediatric tertiary centre: Revision surgery rates over a nine-year period.

OBJECTIVES: Coblation intracapsular tonsillectomy (ICT) is increasingly being used in the paediatric population because of the rapid recovery and low rates of complications associated with it. There is, however, a risk of symptomatic regrowth with this technique. The objective of our study is to establish the rate of, and risks for, revision surgery over time in a major tertiary referral centre with a large cohort of paediatric Coblation ICT cases. METHODS: A retrospective review of all children (0-19 years) undergoing Coblation ICT from April 2013 to June 2022 was undertaken, using electronic databases and clinical records. Post-operative follow up was reviewed and revision cases were subsequently identified and examined. Statistical analysis was performed using a Chi-Squared test. RESULTS: 4111 patients underwent Coblation ICT during the studied period, with or without concomitant adenoidectomy. Of these, 135 (3.3 %) required revision tonsil surgery, primarily for recurrence of initial symptoms; two patients required two consecutive revision procedures (137 revision procedures in total). Eight-eight (n = 88) (64 %) of these were revised with a repeat Coblation ICT procedure and 49 (36 %) with bipolar diathermy extracapsular tonsillectomy (ECT) of remnant tonsil tissue. The revision rates after Coblation ICT declined steeply on a year-on-year basis since the commencement of this technique (from 10.6 % early on, to 0.3 % at the end of the study period P<0.001). A significantly higher revision rate was noted in children below the age of two at the time of primary surgery, compared to those older than two years of age (P<0.001). CONCLUSIONS: This study demonstrates real-world departmental revision rates over a nine-year period from the technique's commencement of use. With Coblation ICT, symptomatic re-growth occurs rarely, but may be clinically significant, with higher rates of recurrent symptoms seen in children under two years of age at the time of primary surgery. The revision rate apparently drops over time in parallel with overall experience of surgeons and formalised training.

Central diabetes insipidus in pediatric severe traumatic brain injury.

OBJECTIVES: To determine the occurrence rate of central diabetes insipidus in pediatric patients with severe traumatic brain injury and to describe the clinical, injury, biochemical, imaging, and intervention variables associated with mortality. DESIGN: Retrospective chart and imaging review. SETTING: Children's Hospital, level 1 trauma center. PATIENTS: Severely injured (Injury Severity Score ≥ 12) pediatric trauma patients (>1 month and <18 yr) with severe traumatic brain injury (presedation Glasgow Coma Scale ≤ 8 and head Maximum Abbreviated Injury Scale ≥ 4) that developed acute central diabetes insipidus between January 2000 and December 2011. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: Of 818 severely injured trauma patients, 180 had severe traumatic brain injury with an overall mortality rate of 27.2%. Thirty-two of the severe traumatic brain injury patients developed acute central diabetes insipidus that responded to desamino-8-D-arginine vasopressin and/or vasopressin infusion, providing an occurrence rate of 18%. At the time of central diabetes insipidus diagnosis, median urine output and serum sodium were 6.8 ml/kg/hr (interquartile range = 5-11) and 154 mmol/L (interquartile range = 149-159), respectively. The mortality rate of central diabetes insipidus patients was 87.5%, with 71.4% declared brain dead after central diabetes insipidus diagnosis. Early central diabetes insipidus onset, within the first 2 days of severe traumatic brain injury, was strongly associated with mortality (p < 0.001), as were a lower presedation Glasgow Coma Scale (p = 0.03), a lower motor Glasgow Coma Scale (p = 0.01), an occurrence of fixed pupils (p = 0.04), and a prolonged partial thromboplastin time (p = 0.04). Cerebral edema on the initial computed tomography, obtained in the first 24 hrs after injury, was the only imaging finding associated with death (p = 0.002). Survivors of central diabetes insipidus were more likely to have intracranial pressure monitoring (p = 0.03), have thiopental administered to induce coma (p = 0.04) and have received a decompressive craniectomy for elevated intracranial pressure (p = 0.04). CONCLUSIONS: The incidence of central diabetes insipidus in pediatric patients with severe traumatic brain injury is 18%. Mortality was associated with early central diabetes insipidus onset and cerebral edema on head computed tomography. Central diabetes insipidus nonsurvivors were less likely to have received intracranial pressure monitoring, thiopental coma and decompressive craniectomy.

Coagulation assessment in children with diabetic ketoacidosis.

OBJECTIVES: To assess potential hypercoagulability during diabetic ketoacidosis in children. DESIGN: A prospective, controlled pilot study. SETTING: University-affiliated pediatric critical care unit and emergency department in a tertiary care children's hospital. PATIENTS: Children (1-18 years) admitted with an episode of diabetic ketoacidosis and healthy children as controls. All patients with diabetic ketoacidosis managed according to a preestablished protocol. INTERVENTIONS: Thromboelastography was performed using citrated whole-blood samples drawn at the time of admission and upon biochemical and clinical resolution of diabetic ketoacidosis. Citrated whole-blood samples drawn from healthy nondiabetic children acted as control samples. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: Fifteen patients (11.7 ± 4.1 years) in the diabetic ketoacidosis group and 20 patients (8.9 ± 4.5 years; p = 0.06) in the control group completed the study. Values for standard thromboelastography parameters (R and K time, α angle, maximum amplitude, coagulation index, and Ly30) in the diabetic ketoacidosis group, both on admission and resolution, were within the control range; thromboelastography profiles of diabetic ketoacidosis patients on admission were not significantly different from profiles obtained upon diabetic ketoacidosis resolution. The mean α-angle was significantly higher in known diabetic patients compared with newly diagnosed diabetics on admission; however, it still remained within the control normal range. CONCLUSIONS: Thromboelastographic assay results do not reflect a hypercoagulable state in this group of children with diabetic ketoacidosis. Further investigation is required to examine the potential role of injured endothelium in the suspected hypercoagulability during diabetic ketoacidosis.

Mechanisms and consequences of acquired brain injury during development.

The brain of the infant and young child is a developing, dynamic, structure subject to functional remodelling under the influence of factors responsible for optimal neuronal development and synaptogenesis. It exhibits age dependent variation in metabolic rate, blood flow, and ability to tolerate oxidative stress. It is also characterized by an exuberance of neurotransmitter activity, particularly in the first few years of life. The dynamic evolution and adaptability of early brain function permits the organization of neuronal networks to be influenced by environmental stimulation, and, to reduce the functional impact of injury. However, these same processes may also exacerbate the harm sustained by the brain following an acquired brain injury (ABI). The developing neurons are susceptible to excitotoxicity, oxidative stress, and, inflammation, often leading to cellular necrosis and apoptosis. Despite being immunologically privileged via the blood brain barrier, the developing brain is susceptible to injury from systemic inflammation through alteration of normally protective cerebrovascular endothelial cell function. Finally, many of the therapeutic agents currently employed in post-ABI hospital care may also compromise ABI outcome via non-intended pharmacological effects. These agents include analgesic, sedative and anti-convulsant medications. This review emphasizes those physiological considerations in the developing brain which may impact the outcome after ABI, including, the cellular mechanisms of neuronal and cerebrovascular endothelial cell injury, ABI outcome and future therapeutic directions.

Continuous hemofiltration in the control of neonatal hyperammonemia: a 10-year experience.

In a 10-year review of the utilization of continuous veno-venous hemofiltration (CVVH) for the treatment of neonatal hyperammonemia, 14 patients were identified with hyperammonemia due to either a urea cycle defect or an organic acidemia. Intensive care survival was 64%. The pretreatment level of serum ammonia and the rapidity of ammonia clearance did not differ between survivors and non-survivors (p = 0.16 and p = 0.93, respectively). Likewise, the duration of CVVH therapy did not differ between survivors and non-survivors (p = 0.1). Indicators of pretreatment physiological stress showed either a correlation with non-survival [Pediatric Risk of Mortality (PRISM) score, p = 0.006, cardioactive drug requirement, p = 0.003], or demonstrated a trend to such a correlation (serum lactate, p = 0.06). Complications associated with the CVVH technique were infrequent. Hypotension was seen in seven patients, but in only one patient did it arise de novo following the initiation of CVVH. In conclusion, neither the severity of the hyperammonemic state nor the efficacy of ammonia removal correlated with patient outcome. The pre-CVVH PRISM score and requirement for cardio-active medication were significantly greater in those patients who did not survive their acute illness. The pre-CVVH physiological condition of the neonates in this cohort was the main determinant of outcome.

Collagen-related biomarkers in severe sepsis: a big stretch?

Biomedical scientists are aggressively investigating biomarkers of disease and injury. The rationale for identifying biomarkers during pathological states, such as severe sepsis, is to improve clinical prognostication and stratify therapeutic interventions for optimal recovery. An added benefit of biomarker studies is knowledge genesis on pathophysiological mechanisms, critical information that provides a basis for hypothesis-driven research. Unfortunately, biomarkers rarely alter our clinical approach in severe sepsis as they are often non-specific, lack adequate sensitivity and/or are difficult to measure and interpret accurately. Given the complexity and heterogeneity of severe sepsis, and the unique genetically derived susceptibilities of individuals, it is highly unlikely that one or even a handful of biomarkers will provide adequate biomedical information for clinical guidance. Thus, biomarkers will ultimately alter clinical decision making only once a panel of promising biomarkers is identified, maximizing sensitivity and specificity, and then adequately scrutinized with quantitative scoring methods over large populations of patients.

Lung contusion in children--early computed tomography versus radiography.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate, in children, the correlation between the extent of lung contusion as detected on early radiologic examination (chest radiograph [CXR] and/or thoracic computed tomography [TCT]) and subsequent clinical outcome measures. DESIGN: Retrospective chart review study with blinded assessment of thoracic imaging. SETTING: A university-affiliated, level 1 designated pediatric trauma center. INTERVENTIONS: None. PATIENTS: Patients (1-18 yrs) who, between April 2000 and October 2005, were diagnosed with lung contusion were eligible for study entry. The medical records of those patients who underwent early (within the first 24 hrs of admission) thoracic imaging (CXR and/or TCT) were reviewed. A pulmonary contusion score (PCS) was assigned to each thoracic image according to the extent of contusion injury by two investigators blinded to each others score and the clinical details of the patient. RESULTS: Seventy-four patients were included in the study. Twenty patients had undergone CXR only, whereas 54 had undergone both CXR and TCT. The mean PCS on CXR was 3.9 +/- 3.6 compared with 6.5 +/- 3.49 on TCT (p < .001). In eight patients (15%) who underwent TCT and CXR, the CXR failed to demonstrate a lung contusion. The PCS derived from CXR examination correlated positively with lower Pao2/Fio2 (r = -.36, p = .019), higher ventilation index (r = .35, p = .014), and longer length of ventilation (r = .28, p = .019). No such correlation was seen with TCT-derived PCS. CONCLUSIONS: The severity of lung contusion determined by CXR, but not TCT, correlates with impairment of oxygenation, CO2 exchange, and duration of ventilatory support.

Combined transoral and nasendoscopic resection of an eustachian tube hairy polyp causing neonatal respiratory distress.

Hairy polyps are rare congenital malformations that can arise in the nasopharynx. It is rarer for them to originate from the eustachian tube. They present with intermittent airway obstruction and respiratory distress. A thorough ear, nose, and throat examination can be required to identify these lesions. We present a case of eustachian tube hairy polyp causing neonatal respiratory distress in a 1-month baby successfully removed by a combined transoral and nasendoscopic resection.

Elective tracheostomy in mechanically ventilated children in Canada.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the current practice and opinions of paediatric intensivists in Canada regarding tracheostomy in children with potentially reversible conditions which are anticipated to require prolonged mechanical ventilation. DESIGN AND SETTING: Self-administered survey among paediatric intensivists within paediatrics critical care units (PCCU) across Canada. MEASUREMENTS AND RESULTS: All 16 PCCUs participated in the survey with a response rate of 81% (63 physicians). In 14 of 16 centres one to five tracheostomies were performed during 2006. Two centres did not perform any tracheostomies. The overall rate of tracheostomy is less than 1.5%. Percutaneous technique is used in 3/16 (19%) of centres. Readiness to undertake tracheostomy during the first 21[Symbol: see text]days of illness is influenced by patient diagnosis; severe traumatic brain injury 66% vs. 42% in a 2-year-old with Guillain-Barré syndrome, 48% in a 9-year-old with Guillain-Barré syndrome, and 12% in a child with isolated ARDS. In a child with ARDS 25% of respondents would never consider tracheostomy. Age does not affect timing nor keenness for tracheostomy. The majority, 81%, believe that the risks associated with the procedure do not outweigh the potential benefits. Finally, 51% believe that tracheostomy is underutilized in children. CONCLUSIONS: Elective tracheostomy is rarely performed among ventilated children in Canada. However, 51% of physicians believe it is underutilized. The role of elective tracheostomy and the percutaneous technique in children requires further investigation.

Vitamin D deficiency treated by consuming UVB-irradiated mushrooms.

Deficiency of vitamin D is usually caused by dietary deficiency and/or lack of exposure to sunlight in dark skinned individuals living at northern latitudes. Simple vitamin D deficiency is commonly treated by prescribing a vitamin D containing calcium supplement. This report presents a patient who rejected this approach and instead, after researching alternative treatment options independently, opted to self-treat by consuming UVB-irradiated mushrooms. The beneficial effect of this on the patient's plasma biochemical markers is shown. Further research into the beneficial effect of consuming UVB-irradiated mushrooms is required.

Ten-year review of laryngotracheal reconstruction for paediatric airway stenosis.

OBJECTIVES: To review the outcomes of paediatric patients with laryngotracheal stenosis treated at our institution by laryngotracheal reconstruction (LTR). METHODS: A single surgeon personal series retrospective review of case notes over a 10-year period from a single site tertiary referral paediatric otolaryngology department in patients with laryngotracheal stenosis treated with laryngotracheal reconstruction. Evaluation was based on the last laryngotracheal endoscopy, and a retrospective review of the patient's data. RESULTS: Seventy-three open laryngotracheal procedures were undertaken for paediatric laryngotracheal stenosis from the period 1995-2005. Fourteen were cricoid split operations and will be described elsewhere. The remaining 59 procedures were cartilage graft laryngtracheal reconstructions, performed on 53 patients (37 single stage and 16 staged) with 6 having required revisions. CONCLUSIONS: LTR provides good results for subglottic stenosis (SGS) as primary or salvage operations. The procedure has no deleterious effects on laryngeal growth. The causes of failed procedures are discussed.

Life history trade-offs, the intensity of competition, and coexistence in novel and evolving communities under climate change.

The consequences of climate change for local biodiversity are little understood in process or mechanism, but these changes are likely to reflect both changing regional species pools and changing competitive interactions. Previous empirical work largely supports the idea that competition will intensify under climate change, promoting competitive exclusions and local extinctions, while theory and conceptual work indicate that relaxed competition may in fact buffer communities from biodiversity losses that are typically witnessed at broader spatial scales. In this review, we apply life history theory to understand the conditions under which these alternative scenarios may play out in the context of a range-shifting biota undergoing rapid evolutionary and environmental change, and at both leading-edge and trailing-edge communities. We conclude that, in general, warming temperatures are likely to reduce life history variation among competitors, intensifying competition in both established and novel communities. However, longer growing seasons, severe environmental stress and increased climatic variability associated with climate change may buffer these communities against intensified competition. The role of life history plasticity and evolution has been previously underappreciated in community ecology, but may hold the key to understanding changing species interactions and local biodiversity under changing climates.This article is part of the themed issue 'Human influences on evolution, and the ecological and societal consequences'.

High-dose midazolam therapy for refractory status epilepticus in children.

OBJECTIVE: To assess the efficacy of high-dose midazolam in the treatment of refractory status epilepticus in children. SETTING: Paediatric intensive care unit (PICU). DESIGN: Audit of clinical experience. SUBJECTS: Seventeen consecutive patients treated for episodes of refractory status epilepticus. INTERVENTIONS: Algorithm-driven administration of intravenous midazolam to control RSE. Regular, mandatory, patient evaluation to avoid delay in the appropriate escalation of therapy. Our target was the abolition of clinical seizures within 30 min of initiating treatment and early confirmation of cessation of all seizure activity using EEG. The algorithm had failed if clinical seizures persisted beyond 30 min despite the administration of midazolam at 24 microg/kg/min or if administration of a further acute anti-epileptic drug was required to achieve seizure control. MEASUREMENTS: The midazolam infusion rate, cumulative midazolam dose and duration of midazolam therapy at time of clinical seizure control were recorded. Haemodynamic parameters were recorded continuously. Episodes of algorithm failure, breakthrough seizures and seizure relapses were identified. Patient outcome was measured in terms of survival to PICU discharge. RESULTS: In 13 patients (76%) midazolam achieved clinical seizure control within 30 min of treatment initiation. Midazolam was eventually successful in treating 15 seizure episodes (88%). Breakthrough seizures occurred in 8 patients (47%). Relapse after discontinuation of therapy occurred in 1 patient (6%). No significant adverse effects attributable to the use of midazolam occurred. There were 3 deaths (18%) related to underlying CNS pathology. CONCLUSIONS: Midazolam can offer control of refractory status epilepticus without significant morbidity.

Treatment of severe tracheobronchomalacia: Ten-year experience.

INTRODUCTION: Paediatric tracheobronchomalacia is a rare but potentially serious condition. Severe tracheobronchomalacia requires intervention or operation. This is an evaluation of a ten-year experience at an institution. METHODS: In this retrospective study all patients were included that required an intervention for severe tracheobronchomalacia from 2003 to 2012. Symptoms, aetiology, comorbidities, localisation of the malacia, age at diagnosis, therapeutic measures and associated complications were evaluated. RESULTS: Forty-four patients with severe tracheobronchomalacia underwent intervention/operation. The predominant aetiology was vascular compression in 48%. The majority of patients had complex comorbidities, most importantly cardiac pathology in 66%. The median age at diagnosis was 3 months. A total of 17 aortopexies, 21 tracheostomies and 25 stent placements were performed. The mean follow-up was 2.6 years. Severe complications occurred in 12 patients. The most common complications were stent obstruction/fracture and tracheostomy tube obstruction. CONCLUSION: The management of severe tracheobronchomalacia is complex and the population of patients is very heterogeneous. Therefore the treatment has to be adapted for each patient individually. The decision strategies are discussed in this article. The surgical techniques for placement and safe removal of expandable bare metallic stents employed in our institution are presented. A multidisciplinary team of ENT surgeons, Intensivists, Cardiologists and Cardiac surgeons is of great importance.