When death comes: linking predator-prey activity patterns to timing of mortality to understand predation risk.

The assumption that activity and foraging are risky for prey underlies many predator-prey theories and has led to the use of predator-prey activity overlap as a proxy of predation risk. However, the simultaneous measures of prey and predator activity along with timing of predation required to test this assumption have not been available. Here, we used accelerometry data on snowshoe hares (Lepus americanus) and Canada lynx (Lynx canadensis) to determine activity patterns of prey and predators and match these to precise timing of predation. Surprisingly we found that lynx kills of hares were as likely to occur during the day when hares were inactive as at night when hares were active. We also found that activity rates of hares were not related to the chance of predation at daily and weekly scales, whereas lynx activity rates positively affected the diel pattern of lynx predation on hares and their weekly kill rates of hares. Our findings suggest that predator-prey diel activity overlap may not always be a good proxy of predation risk, and highlight a need for examining the link between predation and spatio-temporal behaviour of predator and prey to improve our understanding of how predator-prey behavioural interactions drive predation risk.

Does coat colour influence survival? A test in a cyclic population of snowshoe hares.

Some mammal species inhabiting high-latitude biomes have evolved a seasonal moulting pattern that improves camouflage via white coats in winter and brown coats in summer. In many high-latitude and high-altitude areas, the duration and depth of snow cover has been substantially reduced in the last five decades. This reduction in depth and duration of snow cover may create a mismatch between coat colour and colour of the background environment, and potentially reduce the survival rate of species that depend on crypsis. We used long-term (1977-2020) field data and capture-mark-recapture models to test the hypothesis that whiteness of the coat influences winter apparent survival in a cyclic population of snowshoe hares (Lepus americanus) at Kluane, Yukon, Canada. Whiteness of the snowshoe hare coat in autumn declined during this study, and snowshoe hares with a greater proportion of whiteness in their coats in autumn survived better during winter. However, whiteness of the coat in spring did not affect subsequent summer survival. These results are consistent with the hypothesis that the timing of coat colour change in autumn can reduce overwinter survival. Because declines in cyclic snowshoe hare populations are strongly affected by low winter survival, the timing of coat colour change may adversely affect snowshoe hare population dynamics as climate change continues.

Diversity and composition of mixed-ploidy unisexual salamander assemblages reflect the key influence of host species.

Understanding processes that govern and sustain biological diversity is a central goal of community ecology. Unisexual complexes, where reproduction depends on sperm from males of one or more bisexual host species, are rare and the processes driving their diversity and structure remain poorly understood. Unisexual Ambystoma salamanders produce distinct biotypes ('genomotypes') depending on which bisexual species they 'steal' sperm from. This reproductive mode should generate distinct assemblages depending on the locally available bisexual host species. Yet, how availability and relative abundance of multiple bisexual hosts influences composition and diversity of natural unisexual assemblages at local or regional scales remains unknown. We hypothesize that host identity most directly drives local assemblage composition, with host variation associated with increased beta and gamma diversity within unisexuals. We collected genetic samples from Ambystoma salamanders across Pelee Island, Ontario, Canada (2015-2022). Two host species were identified (A. texanum and A. laterale) with nine sites having a single host and one site having both. Unisexual assemblages were grouped into four clusters by similarity, with host identity being a key determinant. Gamma diversity increased as a result of distinct host-specific assemblages forming at different sites on the island (i.e., high beta diversity). Assemblage composition, but not diversity, was correlated with relative host abundance, which may reflect matching niche requirements between host and unisexual forms they produce. Our results demonstrate that diversity and structure of unisexual assemblages are clearly shaped by their host(s) and such systems may serve as models for studying how biotic interactions shape ecological communities.

Effects of temperature heterogeneity on freshwater turtle habitat selection at their northern range limit.

Environmental temperature is a crucial resource for ectotherms, affecting their physiology, behaviour and fitness. To maintain body temperatures within a suitable performance range, ectotherms select thermally-favourable locations, but this selection may be challenging in environments with high spatio-temporal heterogeneity. We assessed thermal habitat selection in two freshwater turtles (Emydoidea blandingii; Chrysemys picta) within a thermally heterogeneous environment at two spatial scales (selection of home ranges within the landscape, selection of locations within home ranges) and across seasons, by comparing temperatures at turtle locations vs. those available in the environment. Turtles selected warmer locations compared to those available in aquatic and terrestrial habitats only within home ranges, but did not show any temperature preferences when selecting home ranges at the larger scale. Turtles selected locations that were less thermally-variable than their surroundings, both at the home range scale and within home ranges. Thermal habitat selection was strongest during colder and more thermally-variable pre-nesting season compared to later periods. Despite differences in thermal mass between species, both species responded similarly to temperature variation. We conclude that freshwater turtles at their northern range margin select suitable microclimates within the suite of conditions that are naturally available.

Balancing food acquisition and predation risk drives demographic changes in snowshoe hare population cycles.

Snowshoe hare cycles are one of the most prominent phenomena in ecology. Experimental studies point to predation as the dominant driving factor, but previous experiments combining food supplementation and predator removal produced unexplained multiplicative effects on density. We examined the potential interactive effects of food limitation and predation in causing hare cycles using an individual-based food-supplementation experiment over-winter across three cycle phases that naturally varied in predation risk. Supplementation doubled over-winter survival with the largest effects occurring in the late increase phase. Although the proximate cause of mortality was predation, supplemented hares significantly decreased foraging time and selected for conifer habitat, potentially reducing their predation risk. Supplemented hares also lost less body mass which resulted in the production of larger leverets. Our results establish a mechanistic link between how foraging time, mass loss and predation risk affect survival and reproduction, potentially driving demographic changes associated with hare cycles.

The impact of variable predation risk on stress in snowshoe hares over the cycle in North America's boreal forest: adjusting to change.

The boreal forest is one of the world's ecosystems most affected by global climate warming. The snowshoe hare, its predators, and their population dynamics dominate the mammalian component of the North American boreal forest. Our past research has shown the 9-11-year hare cycle to be predator driven, both directly as virtually all hares that die are killed by their predators, and indirectly through sublethal risk effects on hare stress physiology, behavior, and reproduction. We replicated this research over the entire cycle by measuring changes in predation risk expected to drive changes in chronic stress. We examined changes in hare condition and stress axis function using a hormonal challenge protocol in the late winter of 7 years-spanning all phases of the cycle from the increase through to the low (2014-2020). We simultaneously monitored changes in hare abundance as well as those of their primary predators, lynx and coyotes. Despite observing the expected changes in hare-predator numbers over the cycle, we did not see the predicted changes in chronic stress metrics in the peak and decline phases. Thus, the comprehensive physiological signature indicative of chronic predator-induced stress seen from our previous work was not present in this current cycle. We postulate that hares may now be increasingly showing behavior-mediated rather than stress-mediated responses to their predators. We present evidence that increases in primary productivity have affected boreal community structure and function. We speculate that climate change has caused this major shift in the indirect effects of predation on hares.

Frog Virus 3 Genomes Reveal Prevalent Recombination between Ranavirus Lineages and Their Origins in Canada.

Ranaviruses are pathogens associated with the decline of amphibian populations across much of their distribution. In North America, frog virus 3 (FV3) is a widely distributed pathogen with wild populations of amphibians harboring different lineages and putative recombinants between FV3 and common midwife toad virus (CMTV). These recombinants have higher pathogenicity, and CMTV-derived genes associated with virulence are reported in wild strains in Canada. However, while FV3 is linked to amphibian die-offs in North America, CMTVs have been reported only in commercial frog farms in North America. We sequenced complete genomes of 18 FV3 isolates from three amphibian species to characterize genetic diversity of the lineages in Canada and infer possible recombinant regions. The 18 FV3 isolates displayed different signals of recombination, varying from none to interspersed recombination with previously isolated CMTV-like viruses. In general, most recombination breakpoints were located within open reading frames (ORFs), generating new ORFs and proteins that were a mixture between FV3 and CMTV. A combined spatial and temporal phylogeny suggests the presence of the FV3 lineage in Canada is relatively contemporary (<100 years), corroborating the hypothesis that both CMTV- and FV3-like viruses spread to North America when the international commercial amphibian trade started. Our results highlight the importance of pathogen surveillance and viral dynamics using full genomes to more clearly understand the mechanisms of disease origin and spread.IMPORTANCE Amphibian populations are declining worldwide, and these declines have been linked to a number of anthropogenic factors, including disease. Among the pathogens associated with amphibian mortality, ranaviruses have caused massive die-offs across continents. In North America, frog virus 3 (FV3) is a widespread ranavirus that can infect wild and captive amphibians. In this study, we sequenced full FV3 genomes isolated from frogs in Canada. We report widespread recombination between FV3 and common midwife toad virus (CMTV). Phylogenies indicate a recent origin for FV3 in Canada, possibly as a result of international amphibian trade.

Spatial and environmental influences on selection in a clock gene coding trinucleotide repeat in Canada lynx (Lynx canadensis).

Clock genes exhibit substantial control over gene expression and ultimately life-histories using external cues such as photoperiod, and are thus likely to be critical for adaptation to shifting seasonal conditions and novel environments as species redistribute their ranges under climate change. Coding trinucleotide repeats (cTNRs) are found within several clock genes, and may be interesting targets of selection due to their containment within exonic regions and elevated mutation rates. Here, we conduct inter-specific characterization of the NR1D1 cTNR between Canada lynx and bobcat, and intra-specific spatial and environmental association analyses of neutral microsatellites and our functional cTNR marker, to investigate the role of selection on this locus in Canada lynx. We report signatures of divergent selection between lynx and bobcat, with the potential for hybrid-mediated gene flow in the area of range overlap. We also provide evidence that this locus is under selection across Canada lynx in eastern Canada, with both spatial and environmental variables significantly contributing to the explained variation, after controlling for neutral population structure. These results suggest that cTNRs may play an important role in the generation of functional diversity within some mammal species, and allow for contemporary rates of adaptation in wild populations in response to environmental change. We encourage continued investment into the study of cTNR markers to better understand their broader relevance to the evolution and adaptation of mammals.

Distribution and connectivity of protected areas in the Americas facilitates transboundary conservation.

Large-scale anthropogenic changes to landscapes will cause species to move and shift their ranges against a backdrop of international political boundaries. Transboundary conservation efforts are therefore key to preserving intact and connected landscapes, particularly if such efforts can be implemented within the framework of protected area networks that provide for resiliency and persistence in the face of threats such as climate change. We studied the distribution, connectivity, and integrity of protected areas in regions near international borders within the Americas. We found that there is a greater proportion of land protected near vs. far from borders, with this effect extending approximately 125 km from the border. This trend was most pronounced when considering multiuse categories of protected areas in the analysis. We also found that there is greater connectivity of protected areas in border regions than more internally within countries, and relatively low rates of habitat loss within border-situated and internal protected areas. Our results indicate that protected area networks are larger and more connected if considered in a transboundary context and that efforts to conserve species and mitigate effects of long-term stressors like climate change will be most successful when planning includes neighboring countries. Despite a relative lack of attention to transboundary conservation in the Americas, our results suggest substantial opportunities for linking landscapes via a focus on international border regions and coordination across borders in protected areas management.

Genome-scale sampling suggests cryptic epigenetic structuring and insular divergence in Canada lynx.

Determining the molecular signatures of adaptive differentiation is a fundamental component of evolutionary biology. A key challenge is to identify such signatures in wild organisms, particularly between populations of highly mobile species that undergo substantial gene flow. The Canada lynx (Lynx canadensis) is one species where mainland populations appear largely undifferentiated at traditional genetic markers, despite inhabiting diverse environments and displaying phenotypic variation. Here, we used high-throughput sequencing to investigate both neutral genetic structure and epigenetic differentiation across the distributional range of Canada lynx. Newfoundland lynx were identified as the most differentiated population at neutral genetic markers, with demographic modelling suggesting that divergence from the mainland occurred at the end of the last glaciation (20-33 KYA). In contrast, epigenetic structure revealed hidden levels of differentiation across the range coincident with environmental determinants including winter conditions, particularly in the peripheral Newfoundland and Alaskan populations. Several biological pathways related to morphology were differentially methylated between populations, suggesting that epigenetic modifications might explain morphological differences seen between geographically peripheral populations. Our results indicate that epigenetic modifications, specifically DNA methylation, are powerful markers to investigate population differentiation in wild and non-model systems.

Pathogen vs. predator: ranavirus exposure dampens tadpole responses to perceived predation risk.

There is increasing interest in how animals respond to multiple stressors, including potential synergistic or antagonistic interaction between pathogens and perceived predation risk (PPR). For prey that exhibit phenotypic plasticity, it is unclear whether infection and PPR affect behaviour and morphology independently, or in an antagonistic or synergistic manner. Using a 2 × 2 factorial experiment involving green frog (Lithobates clamitans) tadpoles exposed to ranavirus (FV3) and larval dragonflies (Anax spp.), we assessed whether anti-predator responses were affected by infection. We found that activity and feeding were reduced additively by both stressors. Body mass of tadpoles from FV3-exposed tanks was lighter relative to control and PPR-only tanks, while metabolism was comparable across treatments. We found that FV3 exposure compromised morphometric responses to PPR in an antagonistic manner: tadpoles exposed to both treatments had restricted changes in tail depth compared to those receiving singular treatment. We conclude that multiple stressors can have complex and substantive effects on organisms, and that interactions between stressors may yield a range of responses depending on the level of exposure and sensitivity of the organism. Additional work should more fully determine mechanisms underlying the complex interplay between infection and predation risk, across a range of environmental conditions.

Experimental increase in predation risk causes a cascading stress response in free-ranging snowshoe hares.

Extensive research confirms that environmental stressors like predation risk can profoundly affect animal condition and physiology. However, there is a lack of experimental research assessing the suite of physiological responses to risk that may arise under realistic field conditions, leaving a fragmented picture of risk-related physiological change and potential downstream consequences on individuals. We increased predation risk in free-ranging snowshoe hares (Lepus americanus) during two consecutive summers by simulating natural chases using a model predator and monitored hares intensively via radio-telemetry and physiological assays, including measures designed to assess changes in stress physiology and overall condition. Compared to controls, risk-augmented hares had 25.8% higher free plasma cortisol, 15.9% lower cortisol-binding capacity, a greater neutrophil:lymphocyte skew, and a 10.4% increase in glucose. Despite these changes, intra-annual changes in two distinct condition indices, were unaffected by risk exposure. We infer risk-augmented hares compensated for changes in their stress physiology through either compensatory foraging and/or metabolic changes, which allowed them to have comparable condition to controls. Although differences between controls and risk-augmented hares were consistent each year, both groups had heightened stress measures during the second summer, likely reflecting an increase in natural stressors (i.e., predators) in the environment. We show that increased predation risk in free-ranging animals can profoundly alter stress physiology and that compensatory responses may contribute to limiting effects of such changes on condition. Ultimately, our results also highlight the importance of biologically relevant experimental risk manipulations in the wild as a means of assessing physiological responses to natural stressors.

Low intraspecific variation of Frog virus 3 with evidence for novel FV3-like isolates in central and northwestern Canada.

Frog virus 3 (FV3) and FV3-like ranaviruses can infect a variety of cold-blooded aquatic species and present a primary threat to amphibians across the globe. Previous studies of FV3-like viruses have largely investigated higher-level phylogenetic distinctions of these pathogens via portions of the conserved major capsid protein (MCP), and the putative virulence gene vIF-2α. Few studies, however, have investigated the spatial distribution of FV3 variants at the population level3-data that can be used to further understand the spatial epidemiology of this disease. In this study, we sequenced the MCP and vIF-2α of 127 FV3-positive amphibians sampled from Canadian water bodies in Ontario, northeastern Alberta, and southern Northwest Territories to explore whether intraspecific genetic variation exists within FV3. There was a lack of variation at the 2 markers across these regions, suggesting that there is a lack of FV3 sequence diversity in Canada, which may hint at a single source of infection that has spread. However, an undocumented variant termed Wood Buffalo ranavirus (WBRV) was detected in samples from 3 sites in Alberta and Northwest Territories that clustered within the FV3-like lineage with 99.3% sequence homology for MCP. For vIF-2α, all sequences were the expected truncated variant except for 6 samples in Ontario. These latter sequences were suggestive of recombination with common midwife toad virus (CMTV). The lack of variation suggests that higher-resolution genome analyses will be required to further explore the spatial spread and intraspecific variation of the disease.

Spatiotemporal heterogeneity in prey abundance and vulnerability shapes the foraging tactics of an omnivore.

Prey abundance and prey vulnerability vary across space and time, but we know little about how they mediate predator-prey interactions and predator foraging tactics. To evaluate the interplay between prey abundance, prey vulnerability and predator space use, we examined patterns of black bear (Ursus americanus) predation of caribou (Rangifer tarandus) neonates in Newfoundland, Canada using data from 317 collared individuals (9 bears, 34 adult female caribou, 274 caribou calves). During the caribou calving season, we predicted that landscape features would influence calf vulnerability to bear predation, and that bears would actively hunt calves by selecting areas associated with increased calf vulnerability. Further, we hypothesized that bears would dynamically adjust their foraging tactics in response to spatiotemporal changes in calf abundance and vulnerability (collectively, calf availability). Accordingly, we expected bears to actively hunt calves when they were most abundant and vulnerable, but switch to foraging on other resources as calf availability declined. As predicted, landscape heterogeneity influenced risk of mortality, and bears displayed the strongest selection for areas where they were most likely to kill calves, which suggested they were actively hunting caribou. Initially, the per-capita rate at which bears killed calves followed a type-I functional response, but as the calving season progressed and calf vulnerability declined, kill rates dissociated from calf abundance. In support of our hypothesis, bears adjusted their foraging tactics when they were less efficient at catching calves, highlighting the influence that predation phenology may have on predator space use. Contrary to our expectations, however, bears appeared to continue to hunt caribou as calf availability declined, but switched from a tactic of selecting areas of increased calf vulnerability to a tactic that maximized encounter rates with calves. Our results reveal that generalist predators can dynamically adjust their foraging tactics over short time-scales in response to changing prey abundance and vulnerability. Further, they demonstrate the utility of integrating temporal dynamics of prey availability into investigations of predator-prey interactions, and move towards a mechanistic understanding of the dynamic foraging tactics of a large omnivore.

Climate change can alter predator-prey dynamics and population viability of prey.

For many organisms, climate change can directly drive population declines, but it is less clear how such variation may influence populations indirectly through modified biotic interactions. For instance, how will climate change alter complex, multi-species relationships that are modulated by climatic variation and that underlie ecosystem-level processes? Caribou (Rangifer tarandus), a keystone species in Newfoundland, Canada, provides a useful model for unravelling potential and complex long-term implications of climate change on biotic interactions and population change. We measured cause-specific caribou calf predation (1990-2013) in Newfoundland relative to seasonal weather patterns. We show that black bear (Ursus americanus) predation is facilitated by time-lagged higher summer growing degree days, whereas coyote (Canis latrans) predation increases with current precipitation and winter temperature. Based on future climate forecasts for the region, we illustrate that, through time, coyote predation on caribou calves could become increasingly important, whereas the influence of black bear would remain unchanged. From these predictions, demographic projections for caribou suggest long-term population limitation specifically through indirect effects of climate change on calf predation rates by coyotes. While our work assumes limited impact of climate change on other processes, it illustrates the range of impact that climate change can have on predator-prey interactions. We conclude that future efforts to predict potential effects of climate change on populations and ecosystems should include assessment of both direct and indirect effects, including climate-predator interactions.

The Origin and Ecological Function of an Ion Inducing Anti-Predator Behavior in Lithobates Tadpoles.

In aquatic environments, chemical cues are believed to be associated with prey response to predation risk, yet few basic cue compositions are known despite the pronounced ecological and evolutionary significance of such cues. Previous work indicated that negatively-charged ions of m/z 501 are possibly a kairomone that induces anti-predator responses in amphibian tadpoles. However, work described here confirms that this specific ion species m/z 501.2886 is produced by injured tadpoles, exhibits increased spectral intensity with higher tadpole biomass, and is not produced by starved predators. These results indicate the anion is an alarm cue released from tadpoles. High resolution mass spectrometry (HR-MS) revealed a unique elemental composition for [M-H]-, m/z 501.2886, of C26H45O7S- which could not be determined in previous studies using low resolution instruments. Collision induced dissociation of m/z 501 ions formed product ions of m/z 97 and m/z 80, HSO4- and SO3-, respectively, showing the presence of sulfate. Green frog tadpoles, Lithobates clamitans, exposed to the m/z 501 anion or sodium dodecyl sulfate exhibited similar anti-predator responses, suggesting organic sulfate is a tadpole behavior modifier.

Moving forward in circles: challenges and opportunities in modelling population cycles.

Population cycling is a widespread phenomenon, observed across a multitude of taxa in both laboratory and natural conditions. Historically, the theory associated with population cycles was tightly linked to pairwise consumer-resource interactions and studied via deterministic models, but current empirical and theoretical research reveals a much richer basis for ecological cycles. Stochasticity and seasonality can modulate or create cyclic behaviour in non-intuitive ways, the high-dimensionality in ecological systems can profoundly influence cycling, and so can demographic structure and eco-evolutionary dynamics. An inclusive theory for population cycles, ranging from ecosystem-level to demographic modelling, grounded in observational or experimental data, is therefore necessary to better understand observed cyclical patterns. In turn, by gaining better insight into the drivers of population cycles, we can begin to understand the causes of cycle gain and loss, how biodiversity interacts with population cycling, and how to effectively manage wildly fluctuating populations, all of which are growing domains of ecological research.

Tissue-specific transcriptome characterization for developing tadpoles of the northern leopard frog (Lithobates pipiens).

A potential cause of amphibian population declines are the impacts of environmental degradation on tadpole development. We conducted RNA sequencing on developing northern leopard frog tadpoles and through de novo transcriptome assembly we annotated a large number of open reading frames comparable in number and extent to genes identified in Xenopus. Using our transcriptome, we found transcript level changes between early (Gosner 26-31) and late (Gosner 36-41) stage tadpoles were the greatest in the tail, which is reabsorbed throughout development. There was an up-regulation of immunity genes in both the head and tail of the late tadpoles and a down-regulation of genes associated with the energy pathways of the mitochondria and the production of myosin. Overall, transcript level changes across development were consistent with studies on Xenopus and our findings highlight the broader utility of using RNA-seq to identify genes differentially expressed throughout development and in response to environmental pressures.

Spatial arrangement of prey affects the shape of ratio-dependent functional response in strongly antagonistic predators.

Predators play a key role in shaping natural ecosystems, and understanding the factors that influence a predator's kill rate is central to predicting predator-prey dynamics. While prey density has a well-established effect on predation, it is increasingly apparent that predator density also can critically influence predator kill rates. The effects of both prey and predator density on the functional response will, however, be determined in part by their distribution on the landscape. To examine this complex relationship we experimentally manipulated prey density, predator density, and prey distribution using a tadpole (prey)-dragonfly nymph (predator) system. Predation was strongly ratio-dependent irrespective of prey distribution, but the shape of the functional response changed from hyperbolic to sigmoidal when prey were clumped in space. This sigmoidal functional response reflected a relatively strong negative effect of predator interference on kill rates at low prey: predator ratios when prey were clumped. Prey aggregation also appeared to promote stabilizing density-dependent intraguild predation in our system. We conclude that systems with highly antagonistic predators and patchily distributed prey are more likely to experience stable dynamics, and that our understanding of the functional response will be improved by research that examines directly the mechanisms generating interference.

Phase-dependent climate-predator interactions explain three decades of variation in neonatal caribou survival.

Climate can have direct and indirect effects on population dynamics via changes in resource competition or predation risk, but this influence may be modulated by density- or phase-dependent processes. We hypothesized that for ungulates, climatic conditions close to parturition have a greater influence on the predation risk of neonates during population declines, when females are already under nutritional stress triggered by food limitation. We examined the presence of phase-dependent climate-predator (PDCP) interactions on neonatal ungulate survival by comparing spatial and temporal fluctuations in climatic conditions, cause-specific mortality and per capita resource limitation. We determined cause-specific fates of 1384 caribou (Rangifer tarandus) from 10 herds in Newfoundland, spanning more than 30 years during periods of numerical increase and decline, while exposed to predation from black bears (Ursus americanus) and coyotes (Canis latrans). We conducted Cox proportional hazards analysis for competing risks, fit as a function of weather metrics, to assess pre- and post-partum climatic influences on survival on herds in population increase and decline phases. We used cumulative incidence functions to compare temporal changes in risk from predators. Our results support our main hypothesis; when caribou populations increased, weather conditions preceding calving were the main determinants of cause-specific mortality, but when populations declined, weather conditions during calving also influenced predator-driven mortality. Cause-specific analysis showed that weather conditions can differentially affect predation risk between black bears and coyotes with specific variables increasing the risk from one species and decreasing the risk from the other. For caribou, nutritional stress appears to increase predation risk on neonates, an interaction which is exacerbated by susceptibility to climatic events. These findings support the PDCP interactions framework, where maternal body condition influences susceptibility to climate-related events and, subsequently, risk from predation.