Specific inhibition of an anticancer target, polo-like kinase 1, by allosterically dismantling its mechanism of substrate recognition.

Polo-like kinase 1 (Plk1) is considered an attractive target for anticancer therapy. Over the years, studies on the noncatalytic polo-box domain (PBD) of Plk1 have raised the expectation of generating highly specific protein-protein interaction inhibitors. However, the molecular nature of the canonical PBD-dependent interaction, which requires extensive water network-mediated interactions with its phospholigands, has hampered efforts to identify small molecules suitable for Plk1 PBD drug discovery. Here, we report the identification of the first allosteric inhibitor of Plk1 PBD, called Allopole, a prodrug that can disrupt intracellular interactions between PBD and its cognate phospholigands, delocalize Plk1 from centrosomes and kinetochores, and induce mitotic block and cancer cell killing. At the structural level, its unmasked active form, Allopole-A, bound to a deep Trp-Phe-lined pocket occluded by a latch-like loop, whose adjoining region was required for securely retaining a ligand anchored to the phospho-binding cleft. Allopole-A binding completely dislodged the L2 loop, an event that appeared sufficient to trigger the dissociation of a phospholigand and inhibit PBD-dependent Plk1 function during mitosis. Given Allopole's high specificity and antiproliferative potency, this study is expected to open an unexplored avenue for developing Plk1 PBD-specific anticancer therapeutic agents.

Synergistic Effects of A Combined Treatment of Glioblastoma U251 Cells with An Anti-miR-10b-5p Molecule and An AntiCancer Agent Based on 1-(3',4',5'-Trimethoxyphenyl)-2-Aryl-1H-Imidazole Scaffold.

(1) Background: In the development of new and more effective anticancer approaches, combined treatments appear of great interest. Combination therapy could be of importance in the management of glioblastoma (GBM), a lethal malignancy that accounts for 42% of cancer of the central nervous system, with a median survival of 15 months. This study aimed to verify the activity on a glioblastoma cancer cell line of one of the most active compounds of a novel series of tubulin polymerization inhibitors based on the 1-(3',4',5'-trimethoxyphenyl)-2-aryl-1H-imidazole scaffold, used in combination with a miRNA inhibitor molecule targeting the oncomiRNA miR-10b-5p. This microRNA was selected in consideration of the role of miR-10b-5p on the onset and progression of glioblastoma. (2) Methods: Apoptosis was analyzed by Annexin-V and Caspase 3/7 assays, efficacy of the anti-miR-10b-5p was assessed by determining the miR-10b-5p content by RT-qPCR. (3) Results: The results obtained show that a "combination therapy" performed by combining the use of an anti-miR-10b-5p and a 1-(3',4',5'-trimethoxyphenyl)-2-aryl-1H-imidazole derivative is an encouraging strategy to boost the efficacy of anticancer therapies and at the same time to reduce side effects.

Structure-activity relationships of pyrimidine nucleotides containing a 5'-α,ß-methylene diphosphonate at the P2Y6 receptor.

The Gq-coupled P2Y6 receptor (P2Y6R) is a component of the purinergic signaling system and functions in inflammatory, cardiovascular and metabolic processes. UDP, the native P2Y6R agonist and P2Y14R partial agonist, is subject to hydrolysis by ectonucleotidases. Therefore, we have synthesized UDP/CDP analogues containing a stabilizing α,ß-methylene bridge as P2Y6R agonists and identified compatible affinity-enhancing pyrimidine modifications. A distal binding region on the receptor was explored with 4-benzyloxyimino cytidine 5'-diphosphate analogues and their potency determined in a calcium mobilization assay. A 4-trifluoromethyl-benzyloxyimino substituent in 25 provided the highest human P2Y6R potency (MRS4554, 0.57 µM), and a 5-fluoro substitution of the cytosine ring in 28 similarly enhanced potency, with >175- and 39-fold selectivity over human P2Y14R, respectively. However, 3-alkyl (31-33, 37, 38), ß-d-arabinofuranose (39) and 6-aza (40) substitution prevented P2Y6R activation. Thus, we have identified new α,ß-methylene bridged N4-extended CDP analogues as P2Y6R agonists that are highly selective over the P2Y14R.

Apoptosis Pathways Triggered by a Potent Antiproliferative Hybrid Chalcone on Human Melanoma Cells.

The World Health Organization reported that approximately 324,000 new cases of melanoma skin cancer were diagnosed worldwide in 2020. The incidence of melanoma has been increasing over the past decades. Targeting apoptotic pathways is a potential therapeutic strategy in the transition to preclinical models and clinical trials. Some naturally occurring products and synthetic derivatives are apoptosis inducers and may represent a realistic option in the fight against the disease. Thus, chalcones have received considerable attention due to their potential cytotoxicity against cancer cells. We have previously reported a chalcone containing an indole and a pyridine heterocyclic rings and an α-bromoacryloylamido radical which displays potent antiproliferative activity against several tumor cell lines. In this study, we report that this chalcone is a potent apoptotic inducer for human melanoma cell lines SK-MEL-1 and MEL-HO. Cell death was associated with mitochondrial cytochrome c release and poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase cleavage and was prevented by a non-specific caspase inhibitor. Using SK-MEL-1 as a model, we found that the mechanism of cell death involves (i) the generation of reactive oxygen species, (ii) activation of the extrinsic and intrinsic apoptotic and mitogen-activated protein kinase pathways, (iii) upregulation of TRAIL, DR4 and DR5, (iv) downregulation of p21Cip1/WAF1 and, inhibition of the NF-κB pathway.

Design, synthesis and biological evaluation of 2-alkoxycarbonyl-3-anilinoindoles as a new class of potent inhibitors of tubulin polymerization.

A new class of inhibitors of tubulin polymerization based on the 2-alkoxycarbonyl-3-(3',4',5'-trimethoxyanilino)indole molecular skeleton was synthesized and evaluated for antiproliferative activity, inhibition of tubulin polymerization and cell cycle effects. The results presented show that the methoxy substitution and location on the indole nucleus plays an important role in inhibition of cell growth, and the most favorable position for the substituent was at C-6. In addition, a small-size ester function (methoxy/ethoxycarbonyl) at the 2-position of the indole core was desirable. Also, analogues that were alkylated with methyl, ethyl or n-propyl groups or had a benzyl moiety on the N-1 indolic nitrogen retained activity equivalent to those observed in the parent N-1H analogues. The most promising compounds of the series were 2-methoxycarbonyl-3-(3',4'.5'-trimethoxyanilino)-5-methoxyindole 3f and 1-methyl-2-methoxycarbonyl-3-(3',4'.5'-trimethoxyanilino)-6-methoxy-indole 3w, both of which target tubulin at the colchicine site with antitubulin activities comparable to that of the reference compound combretastatin A-4.

Synthesis and Biological Evaluation of 2-Substituted Benzyl-/Phenylethylamino-4-amino-5-aroylthiazoles as Apoptosis-Inducing Anticancer Agents.

Induction of apoptosis is a common chemotherapeutic mechanism to kill cancer cells The thiazole system has been reported over the past decades as a building block for the preparation of anticancer agents. A novel series of 2-arylalkylamino-4-amino-5-(3',4',5'-trimethoxybenzoyl)-thiazole derivatives designed as dual inhibitors of tubulin and cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs) were synthesized and evaluated for their antiproliferative activity in vitro against two cancer cell lines and, for selected highly active compounds, for interactions with tubulin and cyclin-dependent kinases and for cell cycle and apoptosis effects. Structure-activity relationships were elucidated for various substituents at the 2-position of the thiazole skeleton. Among the synthesized compounds, the most active analogues were found to be the p-chlorobenzylamino derivative 8e as well as the p-chloro and p-methoxyphenethylamino analogues 8f and 8k, respectively, which inhibited the growth of U-937 and SK-MEL-1 cancer cell lines with IC50 values ranging from 5.7 to 12.2 µM. On U-937 cells, the tested compounds 8f and 8k induced apoptosis in a time and concentration dependent manner. These two latter molecules did not affect tubulin polymerization (IC50 > 20 µM) nor CDK activity at a single concentration of 10 µM, suggesting alternative targets than tubulin and CDK for the compounds.

Synthesis and Biological Evaluation of New Antitubulin Agents Containing 2-(3',4',5'-trimethoxyanilino)-3,6-disubstituted-4,5,6,7-tetrahydrothieno[2,3-c]pyridine Scaffold.

Two novel series of compounds based on the 4,5,6,7-tetrahydrothieno[2,3-c]pyridine and 4,5,6,7-tetrahydrobenzo[b]thiophene molecular skeleton, characterized by the presence of a 3',4',5'-trimethoxyanilino moiety and a cyano or an alkoxycarbonyl group at its 2- or 3-position, respectively, were designed, synthesized, and evaluated for antiproliferative activity on a panel of cancer cell lines and for selected highly active compounds, inhibition of tubulin polymerization, and cell cycle effects. We have identified the 2-(3',4',5'-trimethoxyanilino)-3-cyano-6-methoxycarbonyl-4,5,6,7-tetrahydrothieno[2,3-c]pyridine derivative 3a and its 6-ethoxycarbonyl homologue 3b as new antiproliferative agents that inhibit cancer cell growth with IC50 values ranging from 1.1 to 4.7 µM against a panel of three cancer cell lines. Their interaction with tubulin at micromolar levels leads to the accumulation of cells in the G2/M phase of the cell cycle and to an apoptotic cell death. The cell apoptosis study found that compounds 3a and 3b were very effective in the induction of apoptosis in a dose-dependent manner. These two derivatives did not induce cell death in normal human peripheral blood mononuclear cells, suggesting that they may be selective against cancer cells. Molecular docking studies confirmed that the inhibitory activity of these molecules on tubulin polymerization derived from binding to the colchicine site.

3-Aryl/Heteroaryl-5-amino-1-(3',4',5'-trimethoxybenzoyl)-1,2,4-triazoles as antimicrotubule agents. Design, synthesis, antiproliferative activity and inhibition of tubulin polymerization.

Many natural and synthetic substances are known to interfere with the dynamic assembly of tubulin, preventing the formation of microtubules. In our search for potent and selective antitumor agents, a novel series of 1-(3',4',5'-trimethoxybenzoyl)-5-amino-1,2,4-triazoles were synthesized. The compounds had different heterocycles, including thiophene, furan or the three isomeric pyridines, and they possessed a phenyl ring bearing electron-releasing or electron-withdrawing substituents at the 3-position of the 5-amino-1,2,4-triazole system. Most of the twenty-two tested compounds showed moderate to potent antiproliferative activities against a panel of solid tumor and leukemic cell lines, with four (5j, 5k, 5o and 5p) showing strong antiproliferative activity (IC50 < 1 µM) against selected cancer cells. Among them, several molecules preferentially inhibited the proliferation of leukemic cell lines, showing IC50 values 2-100-fold lower for Jurkat and RS4;11 cells than those for the three lines derived from solid tumors (HeLa, HT-29 and MCF-7 cells). Compound 5k strongly inhibited tubulin assembly, with an IC50 value of 0.66 µM, half that obtained in simultaneous experiments with CA-4 (IC50 = 1.3 µM).

Synthesis and biological evaluation of alpha-bromoacryloylamido indolyl pyridinyl propenones as potent apoptotic inducers in human leukaemia cells.

The combination of two pharmacophores into a single molecule represents one of the methods that can be adopted for the synthesis of new anticancer molecules. To investigate the influence of the position of the pyridine nitrogen on biological activity, two different series of α-bromoacryloylamido indolyl pyridinyl propenones 3a-h and 4a-d were designed and synthesized by a pharmacophore hybridization approach and evaluated for their antiproliferative activity against a panel of six human cancer cell lines. These hybrid molecules were prepared to combine the α-bromoacryloyl moiety with two series of indole-inspired chalcone analogues, possessing an indole derivative and a 3- or 4-pyridine ring, respectively, linked on either side of 2-propen-1-one system. The structure-activity relationship was also investigated by the insertion of alkyl or benzyl moieties at the N-1 position of the indole nucleus. We found that most of the newly synthesized displayed high antiproliferative activity against U-937, MOLT-3, K-562, and NALM-6 leukaemia cell lines, with one-digit to double-digit nanomolar IC50 values. The antiproliferative activities of 3-pyridinyl derivatives 3f-h revealed that N-benzyl indole analogues generally exhibited lower activity compared to N-H or N-alkyl derivatives 3a-b and 3c-e, respectively. Moreover, cellular mechanism studies elucidated that compound 4a induced apoptosis along with a decrease of mitochondrial membrane potential and activated caspase-3 in a concentration-dependent manner.

Arylamidonaphtalene sulfonate compounds as a novel class of heparanase inhibitors.

The search for antimetastatic agents for cancer therapy may involve the ability of new compounds to maintain the tissue extracellular matrix integrity. Among known factors, heparanase, an endoglucuronidase responsible for heparan sulfate cleavage, is a promising target whose inhibition could represent a strong obstacle for metastatic cancerous mechanisms. The antimetastatic activity of some suramin derivatives reported in literature suggests a possible involvement of the heparanase enzyme. To confirm such hypothesis, we have investigated FCE27266, a molecule known for its antiangiogenic and antimetastatic properties. Other new derivatives were also synthesized and investigated. Our findings revealed that FCE27266 as well as some derivatives have a strong heparanase inhibition activity, together with no cytotoxic power. Moreover, a FCE27266 analogue (SST0546NA1; 17a) resulted also positive to lower gene expression of some proangiogenic factors.

A2A adenosine receptor agonists, antagonists, inverse agonists and partial agonists.

The Gs-coupled A2A adenosine receptor (A2AAR) has been explored extensively as a pharmaceutical target, which has led to numerous clinical trials. However, only one selective A2AAR agonist (regadenoson, Lexiscan) and one selective A2AAR antagonist (istradefylline, Nouriast) have been approved by the FDA, as a pharmacological agent for myocardial perfusion imaging (MPI) and as a cotherapy for Parkinson's disease (PD), respectively. Adenosine is widely used in MPI, as Adenoscan. Despite numerous unsuccessful clinical trials, medicinal chemical activity around A2AAR ligands has accelerated recently, particularly through structure-based drug design. New drug-like A2AAR antagonists for PD and cancer immunotherapy have been identified, and many clinical trials have ensued. For example, imaradenant (AZD4635), a compound that was designed computationally, based on A2AAR X-ray structures and biophysical mapping. Mixed A2AAR/A2BAR antagonists are also hopeful for cancer treatment. A2AAR antagonists may also have potential as neuroprotective agents for treatment of Alzheimer's disease.

2-Amino-5-arylethynyl-thiophen-3-yl-(phenyl)methanones as A1 Adenosine Receptor Positive Allosteric Modulators.

A1 adenosine receptor (A1AR) agonists have cerebroprotective, cardioprotective, antinociceptive, and other pharmaceutical applications. We explored the structure-activity relationship of 5-arylethynyl aminothiophenes as A1AR positive allosteric modulators (PAMs). The derivatives were compared in binding and functional assays at the human A1AR, indicating that some fluoro-substituted analogues have enhanced PAM activity. We identified substitution of the terminal phenyl ring in 12 (2-F-Ph), 15 (3,4-F2-Ph, MRS7935), and 21 (2-CF3-Ph) as particularly enhancing the PAM activity. 15 was also shown to act as an A1 ago-PAM with EC50 ≈ 2 µM, without activity (30 µM) at other ARs. Molecular modeling indicated that both the 5-arylethynyl and the 4-neopentyl groups are located in a region outside the receptor transmembrane helix bundle that is in contact with the phospholipid bilayer, consistent with the preference for nonpolar substitution of the aryl moiety. Although they are hydrophobic, these PAMs could provide potential drug candidate molecules for engaging protective A1ARs.

Structural Optimization and Anticancer Activity of Polo-like Kinase 1 (Plk1) Polo-Box Domain (PBD) Inhibitors and Their Prodrugs.

Polo-like kinase 1 (Plk1), a mitotic kinase whose activity is widely upregulated in various human cancers, is considered an attractive target for anticancer drug discovery. Aside from the kinase domain, the C-terminal noncatalytic polo-box domain (PBD), which mediates the interaction with the enzyme's binding targets or substrates, has emerged as an alternative target for developing a new class of inhibitors. Various reported small molecule PBD inhibitors exhibit poor cellular efficacy and/or selectivity. Here, we report structure-activity relationship (SAR) studies on triazoloquinazolinone-derived inhibitors, such as 43 (a 1-thioxo-2,4-dihydrothieno[2,3-e][1,2,4]triazolo[4,3-a]pyrimidin-5(1H)-one) that effectively block Plk1, but not Plk2 and Plk3 PBDs, with improved affinity and drug-like properties. The range of prodrug moieties needed for thiol group masking of the active drugs has been expanded to increase cell permeability and mechanism-based cancer cell (L363 and HeLa) death. For example, a 5-thio-1-methyl-4-nitroimidazolyl prodrug 80, derived from 43, showed an improved cellular potency (GI50 4.1 µM). As expected, 80 effectively blocked Plk1 from localizing to centrosomes and kinetochores and consequently induced potent mitotic block and apoptotic cell death. Another prodrug 78 containing 9-fluorophenyl in place of the thiophene-containing heterocycle in 80 also induced a comparable degree of anti-Plk1 PBD effect. However, orally administered 78 was rapidly converted in the bloodstream to parent drug 15, which was shown be relatively stable toward in vivo oxidation due to its 9-fluorophenyl group in comparison to unsubstituted phenyl. Further derivatization of these inhibitors, particularly to improve the systemic prodrug stability, could lead to a new class of therapeutics against Plk1-addicted cancers.

Synthesis and Biological Evaluation of Highly Active 7-Anilino Triazolopyrimidines as Potent Antimicrotubule Agents.

Two different series of fifty-two compounds, based on 3',4',5'-trimethoxyaniline (7a-ad) and variably substituted anilines (8a-v) at the 7-position of the 2-substituted-[1,2,4]triazolo [1,5-a]pyrimidine nucleus, had moderate to potent antiproliferative activity against A549, MDA-MB-231, HeLa, HT-29 and Jurkat cancer cell lines. All derivatives with a common 3-phenylpropylamino moiety at the 2-position of the triazolopyrimidine scaffold and different halogen-substituted anilines at its 7-position, corresponding to 4'-fluoroaniline (8q), 4'-fluoro-3'-chloroaniline (8r), 4'-chloroaniline (8s) and 4'-bromoaniline (8u), displayed the greatest antiproliferative activity with mean IC50's of 83, 101, 91 and 83 nM, respectively. These four compounds inhibited tubulin polymerization about 2-fold more potently than combretastatin A-4 (CA-4), and their activities as inhibitors of [3H]colchicine binding to tubulin were similar to that of CA-4. These data underlined that the 3',4',5'-trimethoxyanilino moiety at the 7-position of the [1,2,4]triazolo [1,5-a]pyrimidine system, which characterized compounds 7a-ad, was not essential for maintaining potent antiproliferative and antitubulin activities. Compounds 8q and 8r had high selectivity against cancer cells, and their interaction with tubulin led to the accumulation of HeLa cells in the G2/M phase of the cell cycle and to apoptotic cell death through the mitochondrial pathway. Finally, compound 8q significantly inhibited HeLa cell growth in zebrafish embryos.

Cinnamic acid derivatives linked to arylpiperazines as novel potent inhibitors of tyrosinase activity and melanin synthesis.

A novel series of twenty-seven cinnamides constituted by cinnamic acid derivatives liked to 1-aryl piperazines were synthesized and evaluated for their potential inhibitory diphenolase activity of mushroom tyrosinase. Among them, the presence of a 3-chloro-4-fluorophenyl moiety at the N-1 position of piperazine ring was essential for a potent tyrosinase inhibitory effect, with the 3-nitrocinnamoyl (19p) and 2-chloro-3-methoxycinnamoyl (19t) derivatives as the most potent compounds of the series, with IC50 of 0.16 and 0.12 µM, respectively, resulting much active than kojic acid, whose IC50 value was 17.76 µM. In general, all compounds characterized by the presence of a 1-(3-chloro-4-fluorophenyl)piperazine moiety showed an excellent potency, and the nature, position and number of the substituents on the aryl of the cinnamic acid did not affect significantly the anti-tyrosinase activity. The molecular docking to the active site of the enzyme has been also performed to investigate the nature of enzyme-inhibitor interactions. Furthermore, for selected highly active compounds, their ability to inhibit melanogenesis in the A375 human melanoma cells and in vivo zebrafish model was also evaluated. One of the most potent compounds of series (19t) significantly reduced the pigmentation of zebrafish at 50 µM, unfortunately showing 100% mortality in the Fish Embryo Acute Toxicity (FET) test at the same concentration, Moreover, the zebrafish assay reveals that also compound 19r (IC50:0.51 µM against mushroom tyrosinase) effectively reduces melanogenesis with no acute toxicity effects and it could be proposed as potential candidate to treat tyrosinase-mediated hyperpigmentation.

Design, Synthesis and Biological Investigation of 2-Anilino Triazolopyrimidines as Tubulin Polymerization Inhibitors with Anticancer Activities.

A further investigation aiming to generate new potential antitumor agents led us to synthesize a new series of twenty-two compounds characterized by the presence of the 7-(3',4',5'-trimethoxyphenyl)-[1,2,4]triazolo[1,5-a]pyrimidine pharmacophore modified at its 2-position. Among the synthesized compounds, three were significantly more active than the others. These bore the substituents p-toluidino (3d), p-ethylanilino (3h) and 3',4'-dimethylanilino (3f), and these compounds had IC50 values of 30-43, 160-240 and 67-160 nM, respectively, on HeLa, A549 and HT-29 cancer cells. The p-toluidino derivative 3d was the most potent inhibitor of tubulin polymerization (IC50: 0.45 µM) and strongly inhibited the binding of colchicine to tubulin (72% inhibition), with antiproliferative activity superior to CA-4 against A549 and HeLa cancer cell lines. In vitro investigation showed that compound 3d was able to block treated cells in the G2/M phase of the cell cycle and to induce apoptosis following the intrinsic pathway, further confirmed by mitochondrial depolarization and caspase-9 activation. In vivo experiments conducted on the zebrafish model showed good activity of 3d in reducing the mass of a HeLa cell xenograft. These effects occurred at nontoxic concentrations to the animal, indicating that 3d merits further developmental studies.

Structure-Activity Relationship of 3-Methylcytidine-5'-α,ß-methylenediphosphates as CD73 Inhibitors.

We recently reported N4-substituted 3-methylcytidine-5'-α,ß-methylenediphosphates as CD73 inhibitors, potentially useful in cancer immunotherapy. We now expand the structure-activity relationship of pyrimidine nucleotides as human CD73 inhibitors. 4-Chloro (MRS4598 16; Ki = 0.673 nM) and 4-iodo (MRS4620 18; Ki = 0.436 nM) substitution of the N4-benzyloxy group decreased Ki by ∼20-fold. Primary alkylamine derivatives coupled through a p-amido group with a varying methylene chain length (24 and 25) were functionalized congeners, for subsequent conjugation to carrier or reporter moieties. X-ray structures of hCD73 with two inhibitors indicated a ribose ring conformational adaptation, and the benzyloxyimino group (E configuration) binds to the same region (between the C-terminal and N-terminal domains) as N4-benzyl groups in adenine inhibitors. Molecular dynamics identified stabilizing interactions and predicted conformational diversity. Thus, by N4-benzyloxy substitution, we have greatly enhanced the inhibitory potency and added functionality enabling molecular probes. Their potential as anticancer drugs was confirmed by blocking CD73 activity in tumor tissues in situ.

Synergistic effects of the combined treatment of U251 and T98G glioma cells with an anti­tubulin tetrahydrothieno[2,3­c]pyridine derivative and a peptide nucleic acid targeting miR­221­3p.

In the development of novel and more effective anticancer approaches, combined treatments appear to be of great interest, based on the possibility of obtaining relevant biological or therapeutic effects using lower concentrations of single drugs. Combination therapy may prove to be of utmost significance in the management of glioblastoma (GBM), a lethal malignancy that accounts for 42% of cancer cases of the central nervous system, with a median survival rate of 15 months. As regards novel therapeutic approaches, the authors have recently demonstrated that peptide nucleic acids (PNAs) that target microRNA (miRNA/miR)­221 are very active in inducing the apoptosis of glioma cells. Furthermore, in a recent study, the authors described two novel series of tubulin polymerization inhibitors based on the 4,5,6,7­tetrahydrothieno[2,3­c]pyridine and 4,5,6,7­tetrahydrobenzo[b]thiophene scaffold, which exerted a potent anti­proliferative effect on a variety of tumor cell lines. The present study aimed to verify the activity on glioblastoma cancer cell lines of one of the most active compounds tested, corresponding to 2­(3', 4', 5'­trimethoxyanilino)­3­cyano/alkoxycarbonyl­6­substituted­4 5,6,7­tetrahydrothiene[2,3­c] pyridine (compound 3b), used in combination with an anti­miR­221­3p PNA, already demonstrated to be able to induce high levels of apoptosis. To the best of our knowledge, the results obtained herein demonstrate for the first time a 'combination therapy' performed by the combined use of a PNA targeting miR­221 and the tetrahydrothiene[2,3­c]pyridine derivative 3b, supporting the concept that the combined treatment of GBM cells with a PNA against a specific upregulated oncomiRNA (in the present study a PNA targeting miR­221­3p was used) and anti­tubulin agents (in the present study derivative 3b was used) is an encouraging strategy which may be used to enhance the efficacy of anticancer therapies and at the same time, to reduce side­effects.

A facile synthesis of diaryl pyrroles led to the discovery of potent colchicine site antimitotic agents.

Three different series of cis-restricted analogues of combretastatin A-4 (CA-4), corresponding to thirty-nine molecules that contained a pyrrole nucleus interposed between the two aryl rings, were prepared by a palladium-mediated coupling approach and evaluated for their antiproliferative activity against six human cancer cell lines. In the two series of 1,2-diaryl pyrrole derivatives, results suggested that the presence of the 3',4',5'-trimethoxyphenyl moiety at the N-1 position of the pyrrole ring was more favorable for antiproliferative activity. In the series of 3,4-diarylpyrrole analogues, three compounds (11i-k) exhibited maximal antiproliferative activity, showing excellent antiproliferative activity against the CA-4 resistant HT-29 cells. Inhibition of tubulin polymerization of selected 1,2 pyrrole derivatives (9a, 9c, 9o and 10a) was similar to that observed with CA-4, while the isomeric 3,4-pyrrole analogues 11i-k were generally from 1.5- to 2-fold more active than CA-4. Compounds 11j and 11k were the only compounds that showed activity as inhibitors of colchicine binding comparable to that CA-4. Compound 11j had biological properties consistent with its intracellular target being tubulin. This compound was able to block the cell cycle in metaphase and to induce significant apoptosis at a concentration of 25 nM, following the mitochondrial pathway, with low toxicity for normal cells. More importantly, compound 11j exerted activity in vivo superior to that of CA-4P, being able to significantly reduce tumor growth in a syngeneic murine tumor model even at the lower dose tested (5.0 mg/kg).

Design, synthesis, in vitro and in vivo biological evaluation of 2-amino-3-aroylbenzo[b]furan derivatives as highly potent tubulin polymerization inhibitors.

A new class of inhibitors of tubulin polymerization based on the 2-amino-3-(3',4',5'-trimethoxybenzoyl)benzo[b]furan molecular scaffold was synthesized and evaluated for in vivo and in vitro biological activity. These derivatives were synthesized with different electron-releasing or electron-withdrawing substituents at one of the C-4 through C-7 positions. Methoxy substitution and location on the benzene part of the benzo[b]furan ring played an important role in affecting antiproliferative activity, with the greatest activity occurring with the methoxy group at the C-6 position, the least with the substituent at C-4. The same effect was also observed with ethoxy, methyl or bromine at the C-6 position of the benzo[b]furan skeleton, with the 6-ethoxy-2-amino-3-(3',4',5'-trimethoxybenzoyl)benzo[b]furan derivative 4f as the most promising compound of the series. This compound showed remarkable antiproliferative activity (IC50: 5 pM) against the Daoy medulloblastoma cell line, and 4f was nearly devoid of toxicity on healthy human lymphocytes and astrocytes. The potent antiproliferative activity of 4f was derived from its inhibition of tubulin polymerization by binding to the colchicine site. The compound was also examined for in vivo activity, showing higher potency at 15 mg/kg compared with the reference compound combretastatin A-4 phosphate at 30 mg/kg against a syngeneic murine mammary tumor.