Predictors of smokeless tobacco use among the adult population of north-east India during 2009-2017: A decomposition analysis.

Background & objectives: Contrary to overall declining trend in smokeless tobacco (SLT) use in India, an increase is observed in north-east (NE) India. This study examined the predictors of daily SLT use by gender and assessed the demographic and socio-economic characteristics that contribute to gender differences in SLT use in NE India. Methods: Data collected from 15,259 and 13,574 adults in the two rounds of Global Tobacco Adult Survey 1 and 2 for NE India during 2009-2010 and 2016-2017 were analyzed. Relative change, multivariable binary logistic regression and Blinder-Oaxaca decomposition analysis were used for analysis. Results: The findings suggest that among women in NE India, the daily SLT use significantly increased by 58 per cent between 2009-2010 to 2016-2017. Women residing in Nagaland, Manipur, Mizoram and Tripura were 3.5 and 2.5 times, respectively more likely to be daily SLT users compared to those in Assam. While age, education and wealth were the significant predictors of SLT use in both women and men, increased odds of SLT use were observed with women's type of occupation and the State of residence. The majority of the gender differences in daily SLT use was explained by differences in work status (44%), age (26%), education (14%) and wealth status (9%) between men and women. Interpretation & conclusions: Increasing prevalence of SLT use amongst women in the NE States necessitates integration of gender-specific messages on harmful effects of SLT in the ongoing tobacco control programmes and development of culturally appropriate community-based interventions for cessation of SLT use.

Development & validation of scales to assess stigma related to COVID-19 in India.

Background & objectives: COVID-19 pandemic has triggered social stigma towards individuals affected and their families. This study describes the process undertaken for the development and validation of scales to assess stigmatizing attitudes and experiences among COVID-19 and non-COVID-19 participants from the community. Methods: COVID-19 Stigma Scale and Community COVID-19 Stigma Scale constituting 13 and six items, respectively, were developed based on review of literature and news reports, expert committee evaluation and participants' interviews through telephone for a multicentric study in India. For content validity, 61 (30 COVID-19-recovered and 31 non-COVID-19 participants from the community) were recruited. Test-retest reliability of the scales was assessed among 99 participants (41 COVID-19 recovered and 58 non-COVID-19). Participants were administered the scale at two-time points after a gap of 7-12 days. Cronbach's alpha, overall percentage agreement and kappa statistics were used to assess internal consistency and test-retest reliability. Results: Items in the scales were relevant and comprehensible. Both the scales had Cronbach's α above 0.6 indicating moderate-to-good internal consistency. Test-retest reliability assessed using kappa statistics indicated that for the COVID-19 Stigma Scale, seven items had a moderate agreement (0.4-0.6). For the Community COVID-19 Stigma Scale, four items had a moderate agreement. Interpretation & conclusions: Validity and reliability of the two stigma scales indicated that the scales were comprehensible and had moderate internal consistency. These scales could be used to assess COVID-19 stigma and help in the development of appropriate stigma reduction interventions for COVID-19 infected, and mitigation of stigmatizing attitudes in the community.

Acceptability of the Medication Event Reminder Monitor for Promoting Adherence to Multidrug-Resistant Tuberculosis Therapy in Two Indian Cities: Qualitative Study of Patients and Health Care Providers.

BACKGROUND: Patients with multidrug-resistant tuberculosis (MDR-TB) face challenges adhering to medications, given that treatment is prolonged and has a high rate of adverse effects. The Medication Event Reminder Monitor (MERM) is a digital pillbox that provides pill-taking reminders and facilitates the remote monitoring of medication adherence. OBJECTIVE: This study aims to assess the MERM's acceptability to patients and health care providers (HCPs) during pilot implementation in India's public sector MDR-TB program. METHODS: From October 2017 to September 2018, we conducted qualitative interviews with patients who were undergoing MDR-TB therapy and were being monitored with the MERM and HCPs in the government program in Chennai and Mumbai. Interview transcripts were independently coded by 2 researchers and analyzed to identify the emergent themes. We organized findings by using the Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT), which outlines 4 constructs that predict technology acceptance-performance expectancy, effort expectancy, social influence, and facilitating conditions. RESULTS: We interviewed 65 patients with MDR-TB and 10 HCPs. In patient interviews, greater acceptance of the MERM was related to perceptions that the audible and visual reminders improved medication adherence and that remote monitoring reduced the frequency of clinic visits (performance expectancy), that the device's organization and labeling of medications made it easier to take them correctly (effort expectancy), that the device facilitated positive family involvement in the patient's care (social influences), and that remote monitoring made patients feel more cared for by the health system (facilitating conditions). Lower patient acceptance was related to problems with the durability of the MERM's cardboard construction and difficulties with portability and storage because of its large size (effort expectancy), concerns regarding stigma and the disclosure of patients' MDR-TB diagnoses (social influences), and the incorrect understanding of the MERM because of suboptimal counseling (facilitating conditions). In their interviews, HCPs reported that MERM implementation resulted in fewer in-person interactions with patients and thus allowed HCPs to dedicate more time to other tasks, which improved job satisfaction. CONCLUSIONS: Several features of the MERM support its acceptability among patients with MDR-TB and HCPs, and some barriers to patient use could be addressed by improving the design of the device. However, some barriers, such as disease-related stigma, are more difficult to modify and may limit use of the MERM among some patients with MDR-TB. Further research is needed to assess the accuracy of MERM for measuring adherence, its effectiveness for improving treatment outcomes, and patients' sustained use of the device in larger scale implementation.

Smokeless Tobacco Use and Cessation Attempts during COVID-19 Lockdown: A Qualitative Study.

BACKGROUND: Smokeless tobacco (SLT) use among women is widely prevalent in Manipur state accounting for 45% users as per Global Adult Tobacco Survey (GATS)-2 India. Studies from India and elsewhere indicate changes in the way people used SLT during COVID-19 lockdown. This study explores individual and economic influences on SLT consumption and cessation attempts by tribal women in Manipur during the first COVID-19 lockdown (March-June, 2020) in India. METHODS: Twenty in-depth interviews, both in-person and telephonically, were conducted among tribal women from Imphal west, Manipur, India, who used any SLT, from April to September 2020. Objective of the study was to understand the use, factors associated with consumption, purchasing behaviors, and cessation attempts of SLT during the lockdown. Thematic content analysis was used to identify core themes and codes. RESULTS: Study participants reported of changes in current SLT use during restrictions imposed to contain COVID-19 pandemic in India. Majority reported of reduction or quit attempts in SLT use. Reasons included inaccessibility due to travel restrictions, limited availability and price rise of SLT products, fear of COVID-19, and disposable income for purchase of SLT products. However, a few women reported of increased consumption due to bulk purchasing, or switching to other SLT products as a result of unavailability or price rise of preferred products or to cope up with social isolation caused by the lockdown. CONCLUSION: Study findings on factors influencing quit attempts and strategies used for reducing SLT use by tribal women in Imphal, Manipur provide valuable insights for development of appropriate intervention for prevention of SLT use among women.

Gender differences in COVID-19 knowledge, risk perception, and public stigma among the general community: Findings from a nationwide cross-sectional study in India.

Introduction: Individual and community characteristics predictive of knowledge, perception, and attitude on COVID-19, specifically on gender, have not been adequately explored. Objective: To examine the gender differences in COVID-19 knowledge, self-risk perception and public stigma among the general community and to understand other socio-demographic factors which were predictive of them. Method: A nationally representative cross-sectional multi-centric survey was conducted among adult individuals(≥18 yrs) from the community member (N = 1978) from six states and one union territory of India between August 2020 to February 2021. The participants were selected using systematic random sampling. The data were collected telephonically using pilot-tested structured questionnaires and were analyzed using STATA. Gender-segregated multivariable analysis was conducted to identify statistically significant predictors (p < 0.05) of COVID-19-related knowledge, risk perception, and public stigma in the community. Results: Study identified significant differences between males and females in their self-risk perception (22.0% & 18.2% respectively) and stigmatizing attitude (55.3% & 47.1% respectively). Highly educated males and females had higher odds of having COVID-19 knowledge (aOR: 16.83: p < 0.05) than illiterates. Highly educated women had higher odds of having self-risk perception (aOR: 2.6; p < 0.05) but lower public stigma [aOR: 0.57; p < 0.05]. Male rural residents had lower odds of having self-risk perception and knowledge [aOR: 0.55; p < 0.05 & aOR: 0.72; p < 0.05] and female rural residents had higher odds of having public stigma [aOR: 1.36; p < 0.05]. Conclusion: Our study findings suggest the importance of considering thegender differentials and their background, education status and residential status in designing effective interventions to improve knowledge and reduce risk perception and stigma in the community about COVID-19.

Factors associated with COVID-19 stigma during the onset of the global pandemic in India: A cross-sectional study.

Objective: To assess factors associated with COVID-19 stigmatizing attitudes in the community and stigma experiences of COVID-19 recovered individuals during first wave of COVID-19 pandemic in India. Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted in 18 districts located in 7 States in India during September 2020 to January 2021 among adults > 18 years of age selected through systematic random sampling. Data on socio demographic and COVID-19 knowledge were collected from 303 COVID-19 recovered and 1,976 non-COVID-19 infected individuals from community using a survey questionnaire. Stigma was assessed using COVID-19 Stigma Scale and Community COVID-19 Stigma Scale developed for the study. Informed consent was sought from the participants. Univariate and multivariate binary logistic regression analysis were conducted. Results: Half of the participants (51.3%) from the community reported prevalence of severe stigmatizing attitudes toward COVID-19 infected while 38.6% of COVID-19 recovered participants reported experiencing severe stigma. Participants from the community were more likely to report stigmatizing attitudes toward COVID-19 infected if they were residents of high prevalent COVID-19 zone (AOR: 1.5; CI: 1.2-1.9), staying in rural areas (AOR: 1.5; CI:1.1-1.9), belonged to the age group of 18-30 years (AOR: 1.6; CI 1.2-2.0), were male (AOR: 1.6; CI: 1.3-1.9), illiterate (AOR: 2.7; CI: 1.8-4.2), or living in Maharashtra (AOR: 7.4; CI: 4.8-11.3). COVID-19 recovered participants had higher odds of experiencing stigma if they had poor knowledge about COVID-19 transmission (AOR: 2.8; CI: 1.3-6.3), were staying for 6-15 years (AOR: 3.24; CI: 1.1-9.4) in the current place of residence or belonged to Delhi (AOR: 5.3; CI: 1.04-26.7). Conclusion: Findings indicated presence of stigmatizing attitudes in the community as well as experienced stigma among COVID-19 recovered across selected study sites in India during the first wave of COVID-19 pandemic. Study recommends timely dissemination of factual information to populations vulnerable to misinformation and psychosocial interventions for individuals affected by stigma.

Understanding pretreatment loss to follow-up of tuberculosis patients: an explanatory qualitative study in Chennai, India.

Introduction: Pretreatment loss to follow-up (PTLFU)-dropout of patients after diagnosis but before treatment registration-is a major gap in tuberculosis (TB) care in India and globally. Patient and healthcare worker (HCW) perspectives are critical for developing interventions to reduce PTLFU. Methods: We tracked smear-positive TB patients diagnosed via sputum microscopy from 22 diagnostic centres in Chennai, one of India's largest cities. Patients who did not start therapy within 14 days, or who died or were lost to follow-up before official treatment registration, were classified as PTLFU cases. We conducted qualitative interviews with trackable patients, or family members of patients who had died. We conducted focus group discussions (FGDs) with HCWs involved in TB care. Interview and FGD transcripts were coded and analysed with Dedoose software to identify key themes. We created categories into which themes clustered and identified relationships among thematic categories to develop an explanatory model for PTLFU. Results: We conducted six FGDs comprising 53 HCWs and 33 individual patient or family member interviews. Themes clustered into five categories. Examining relationships among categories revealed two pathways leading to PTLFU as part of an explanatory model. In the first pathway, administrative and organisational health system barriers-including the complexity of navigating the system, healthcare worker absenteeism and infrastructure failures-resulted in patients feeling frustration or resignation, leading to disengagement from care. In turn, HCWs faced work constraints that contributed to many of these health system barriers for patients. In the second pathway, negative HCW attitudes and behaviours contributed to patients distrusting the health system, resulting in refusal of care. Conclusion: Health system barriers contribute to PTLFU directly and by amplifying patient-related challenges to engaging in care. Interventions should focus on removing administrative hurdles patients face in the health system, improving quality of the HCW-patient interaction and alleviating constraints preventing HCWs from providing patient-centred care.

Smoking, alcohol use disorder and tuberculosis treatment outcomes: A dual co-morbidity burden that cannot be ignored.

BACKGROUND: More than 20% of tuberculosis (TB) disease worldwide may be attributable to smoking and alcohol abuse. India is the second largest consumer of tobacco products, a major consumer of alcohol particularly among males, and has the highest burden of TB globally. The impact of increasing tobacco dose, relevance of alcohol misuse and past versus current or never smoking status on TB treatment outcomes remain inadequately defined. METHODS: We conducted a multi-centric prospective cohort study of newly diagnosed adult pulmonary TB patients initiated on TB treatment and followed for a minimum of 6 months to assess the impact of smoking status with or without alcohol abuse on treatment outcomes. Smokers were defined as never smokers, past smokers or current smokers. Alcohol Use Disorder Identification Test (AUDIT) scores were used to assess alcohol misuse. The association between smoking status and treatment outcomes was assessed in univariate and multivariate random effects poisson regression models. RESULTS: Of 455 enrolled, 129 (28%) had a history of smoking with 94 (20%) current smokers and 35 (8%) past smokers. Unfavourable treatment outcomes were significantly higher among past and current smokers as compared to never smokers. Specifically, the risk of treatment failure was significantly higher among past smokers (aIRR = 2.66, 95% CI: 1.41-4.90, p = 0.002), recurrent TB among current smokers (aIRR = 2.94, 95% CI: 1.30-6.67, p = 0.010) and death among both past (2.63, 95% CI: 1.11-6.24, p = 0.028) and current (aIRR = 2.59, 95% CI: 1.29-5.18, p = 0.007) smokers. Furthermore, the combined effect of alcohol misuse and smoking on unfavorable treatment outcomes was significantly higher among past smokers (aIRR: 4.67, 95% CI: 2.17-10.02, p<0.001) and current smokers (aIRR: 3.58, 95% CI: 1.89-6.76, p<0.001). CONCLUSION: Past and current smoking along with alcohol misuse have combined effects on increasing the risk of unfavourable TB treatment outcomes. Innovative interventions that can readily address both co-morbidities are urgently needed.

Correction: Smoking, alcohol use disorder and tuberculosis treatment outcomes: A dual co-morbidity burden that cannot be ignored.

[This corrects the article DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0220507.].

Psycho-Socio-Economic Issues Challenging Multidrug Resistant Tuberculosis Patients: A Systematic Review.

BACKGROUND: Limited treatment options, long duration of treatment and associated toxicity adversely impact the physical and mental well-being of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis (MDR-TB) patients. Despite research advances in the microbiological and clinical aspects of MDR-TB, research on the psychosocial context of MDR-TB is limited and less understood. METHODOLOGY: We searched the databases of PubMed, MEDLINE, Embase and Google Scholar to retrieve all published articles. The final manuscripts included in the review were those with a primary focus on psychosocial issues of MDR-TB patients. These were assessed and the information was thematically extracted on the study objective, methodology used, key findings, and their implications. Intervention studies were evaluated using components of the methodological and quality rating scale. Due to the limited number of studies and the multiple methodologies employed in the observational studies, we summarized these studies using a narrative approach, rather than conducting a formal meta-analysis. We used 'thematic synthesis' method for extracting qualitative evidences and systematically organised to broader descriptive themes. RESULTS: A total of 282 published articles were retrieved, of which 15 articles were chosen for full text review based on the inclusion criteria. Six were qualitative studies; one was a mixed methods study; and eight were quantitative studies. The included studies were divided into the following issues affecting MDR-TB patients: a) psychological issues b) social issues and economic issues c) psychosocial interventions. It was found that all studies have documented range of psychosocial and economic challenges experienced by MDR-TB patients. Depression, stigma, discrimination, side effects of the drugs causing psychological distress, and the financial constraints due to MDR-TB were some of the common issues reported in the studies. There were few intervention studies which addressed these psychosocial issues most of which were small pilot studies. There is dearth of large scale randomized psychosocial intervention studies that can be scaled up to strengthen management of MDR-TB patients which is crucial for the TB control programme. CONCLUSION: This review has captured the psychosocial and economic issues challenging MDR patients. However there is urgent need for feasible, innovative psychosocial and economic intervention studies that help to equip MDR-TB patients cope with their illness, improve treatment adherence, treatment outcomes and the overall quality of life of MDR-TB patients.

Perceptions of Private Medical Practitioners on Tuberculosis Notification: A Study from Chennai, South India.

BACKGROUND: The Government of India declared TB as a notifiable disease in 2012. There is a paucity of information on the government's mandatory TB notification order from the perspective of private medical practitioners (PPs). OBJECTIVE: To understand the awareness, perception and barriers on TB notification among PPs in Chennai, India. METHODS: Total of 190 PPs were approached in their clinics by trained field staff who collected data using a semi-structured and pre-coded questionnaire after getting informed consent. The data collected included PPs' specialization, TB management practices, awareness about the TB notification order, barriers in its implementation and their suggestions to improve notification. RESULTS: Of 190 PPs from varied specializations, 138 (73%) had diagnosed TB cases in the prior three months, of whom 78% referred these patients to government facilities. Of 138 PPs, 73% were aware of the order on mandatory TB notification, of whom 46 (33%) had ever notified a TB case. Of 120 PPs, 63% reported reasons for not notifying TB cases. The main reasons reported for not notifying were lack of time (50%), concerns regarding patients' confidentiality (24%) and fear of offending patients (11%). Of 145 PPs, 76% provided feedback about information they felt uncomfortable reporting during notification. PPs felt most uncomfortable reporting patient's government-issued Aadhar number (77%), followed by patient's phone number (37%) and residential address (26%). The preferred means of notification was through mobile phone communication (24%), SMS (18%) and e-mail (17%). CONCLUSION: This study highlights that one-fourth of PPs were not aware of the TB notification order and not all those who were aware were notifying. While it is important to sensitize PPs on the importance of TB notification it is also important to understand the barriers faced by PPs and to make the process user-friendly in order to increase TB notification.