Regulation of histone methylation by automethylation of PRC2.

Polycomb-repressive complex 2 (PRC2) is a histone methyltransferase that is critical for regulating transcriptional repression in mammals. Its catalytic subunit, EZH2, is responsible for the trimethylation of H3K27 and also undergoes automethylation. Using mass spectrometry analysis of recombinant human PRC2, we identified three methylated lysine residues (K510, K514, and K515) on a disordered but highly conserved loop of EZH2. Methylation of these lysines increases PRC2 histone methyltransferase activity, whereas their mutation decreases activity in vitro. De novo histone methylation in an EZH2 knockout cell line is greatly impeded by mutation of the automethylation lysines. EZH2 automethylation occurs intramolecularly (in cis) by methylation of a pseudosubstrate sequence on a flexible loop. This posttranslational modification and cis regulation of PRC2 are analogous to the activation of many protein kinases by autophosphorylation. We propose that EZH2 automethylation allows PRC2 to modulate its histone methyltransferase activity by sensing histone H3 tails, SAM concentration, and perhaps other effectors.

Targeting of Polycomb Repressive Complex 2 to RNA by Short Repeats of Consecutive Guanines.

Polycomb repressive complex 2 (PRC2) is a histone methyltransferase that trimethylates H3K27, a mark of repressed chromatin. Mammalian PRC2 binds RNA promiscuously, with thousands of target transcripts in vivo. But what does PRC2 recognize in these RNAs? Here we show that purified human PRC2 recognizes G > C,U ≫ A in single-stranded RNA and has a high affinity for folded guanine quadruplex (G4) structures but little binding to duplex RNAs. Importantly, G-tract motifs are significantly enriched among PRC2-binding transcripts in vivo. DNA sequences coding for PRC2-binding RNA motifs are enriched at PRC2-binding sites on chromatin and H3K27me3-modified nucleosomes. Collectively, the abundance of PRC2-binding RNA motifs rationalizes the promiscuous RNA binding of PRC2, and their enrichment at Polycomb target genes provides a means for RNA-mediated regulation.

The Cellular Immunotherapy Revolution: Arming the Immune System for Precision Therapy.

Immunotherapy treatments harnessing the patient's immune system herald a new era of personalized medicine, offering hope for curative responses in patients with serious illnesses. Cell-mediated immunity can eliminate cancer cells and provide durable remissions. This often relies on repurposing cytotoxic T cell activity through modified T cell receptors or chimeric antigen receptors. Furthermore, synthetic biology has expanded the cell engineering toolkit to provide immune cells with more functionality, including disease targeting, potency, and safety. We focus on T cell-based immunotherapy, highlighting discoveries of genetic engineering and therapeutic use. We also examine emerging paths that could be undertaken to improve this novel class of drugs, and discuss the challenges of toxicities as well as other limitations of cellular immunotherapy.

Functional Impact of Chromatin Remodeling Gene Mutations and Predictive Signature for Therapeutic Response in Bladder Cancer.

Urothelial carcinoma accounts for most of the bladder cancer cases. Using next-generation sequencing (NGS) technology, we found that a significant percentage (83%) of tumors had mutations in chromatin-remodeling genes. Here, we examined the functional relevance of mutations in two chromatin-remodeling genes, EP300 and its paralog, CREBBP, which are mutated in almost one-third of patients. Interestingly, almost half of missense mutations cluster in the histone-acetyltransferase (HAT) domain of EP300/CREBBP. This domain catalyzes the transfer of an acetyl group to target molecules such as histones, thereby regulating chromatin dynamics. Thus, patients with EP300 or CREBBP mutations may have alterations in the ability of the corresponding proteins to modify histone proteins and control transcriptional profiles. In fact, it was determined that many of the missense HAT mutations in EP300 (64%) and CREBBP (78%) were HAT-inactivating. These inactivating mutations also correlated with invasive disease in patients. Strikingly, the prediction software Mutation Assessor accurately predicted the functional consequences of each HAT missense mutation. Finally, a gene expression signature was developed that associated with loss of HAT activity and that this signature was associated with more aggressive cancer in four patient datasets. Further supporting the notion that this score accurately reflects HAT activity, we found it is responsive to treatment of cancer cells to mocetinostat, a histone deacetylase (HDAC) inhibitor.Implication: This study provides a rationale for targeted sequencing of EP300 and CREBBP and use of a gene profiling signature for predicting therapeutic response in patients. Mol Cancer Res; 16(1); 69-77. ©2017 AACR.

Allele-Specific DNA Methylation and Its Interplay with Repressive Histone Marks at Promoter-Mutant TERT Genes.

A mutation in the promoter of the Telomerase Reverse Transcriptase (TERT) gene is the most frequent noncoding mutation in cancer. The mutation drives unusual monoallelic expression of TERT, allowing immortalization. Here, we find that DNA methylation of the TERT CpG island (CGI) is also allele-specific in multiple cancers. The expressed allele is hypomethylated, which is opposite to cancers without TERT promoter mutations. The continued presence of Polycomb repressive complex 2 (PRC2) on the inactive allele suggests that histone marks of repressed chromatin may be causally linked to high DNA methylation. Consistent with this hypothesis, TERT promoter DNA containing 5-methyl-CpG has much increased affinity for PRC2 in vitro. Thus, CpG methylation and histone marks appear to collaborate to maintain the two TERT alleles in different epigenetic states in TERT promoter mutant cancers. Finally, in several cancers, DNA methylation levels at the TERT CGI correlate with altered patient survival.

Molecular analysis of PRC2 recruitment to DNA in chromatin and its inhibition by RNA.

Many studies have revealed pathways of epigenetic gene silencing by Polycomb repressive complex 2 (PRC2) in vivo, but understanding the underlying molecular mechanisms requires biochemistry. Here we analyze interactions of reconstituted human PRC2 with nucleosome complexes. Histone modifications, the H3K27M cancer mutation, and inclusion of JARID2 or EZH1 in the PRC2 complex have unexpectedly minor effects on PRC2-nucleosome binding. Instead, protein-free linker DNA dominates the PRC2-nucleosome interaction. Specificity for CG-rich sequences is consistent with PRC2 occupying CG-rich DNA in vivo. PRC2 preferentially binds methylated DNA regulated by its AEBP2 subunit, suggesting how DNA and histone methylation collaborate to repress chromatin. We find that RNA, known to inhibit PRC2 activity, is not a methyltransferase inhibitor per se. Instead, RNA sequesters PRC2 from nucleosome substrates, because PRC2 binding requires linker DNA, and RNA and DNA binding are mutually exclusive. Together, we provide a model for PRC2 recruitment and an explanation for how actively transcribed genomic regions bind PRC2 but escape silencing.