Cardiotrophin-1 defends the liver against ischemia-reperfusion injury and mediates the protective effect of ischemic preconditioning.

Ischemia-reperfusion (I/R) liver injury occurs when blood flow is restored after prolonged ischemia. A short interruption of blood flow (ischemic preconditioning [IP]) induces tolerance to subsequent prolonged ischemia through ill-defined mechanisms. Cardiotrophin (CT)-1, a cytokine of the interleukin-6 family, exerts hepatoprotective effects and activates key survival pathways like JAK/STAT3. Here we show that administration of CT-1 to rats or mice protects against I/R liver injury and that CT-1-deficient mice are exceedingly sensitive to this type of damage. IP markedly reduced transaminase levels and abrogated caspase-3 and c-Jun-NH2-terminal kinase activation after I/R in normal mice but not in CT-1-null mice. Moreover, the protective effect afforded by IP was reduced by previous administration of neutralizing anti-CT-1 antibody. Prominent STAT3 phosphorylation in liver tissue was observed after IP plus I/R in normal mice but not in CT-1-null mice. Oxidative stress, a process involved in IP-induced hepatoprotection, was found to stimulate CT-1 release from isolated hepatocytes. Interestingly, brief ischemia followed by short reperfusion caused mild serum transaminase elevation and strong STAT3 activation in normal and IL-6-deficient mice, but failed to activate STAT3 and provoked marked hypertransaminasemia in CT-1-null animals. In conclusion, CT-1 is an essential endogenous defense of the liver against I/R and is a key mediator of the protective effect induced by IP.

Triple knock-out of CNTF, LIF, and CT-1 defines cooperative and distinct roles of these neurotrophic factors for motoneuron maintenance and function.

Members of the ciliary neurotrophic factor (CNTF)-leukemia inhibitory factor (LIF) gene family play an essential role for survival of developing and postnatal motoneurons. When subunits of the shared receptor complex are inactivated by homologous recombination, the mice die at approximately birth and exhibit reduced numbers of motoneurons in the spinal cord and brainstem nuclei. However, mice in which cntf, lif, or cardiotrophin-1 (ct-1) are inactivated can survive and show less motoneuron cell loss. This suggests cooperative and redundant roles of these ligands. However, their cooperative functions are not well understood. We generated cntf/lif/ct-1 triple-knock-out and combinations of double-knock-out mice to study the individual and combined roles of CNTF, LIF and CT-1 on postnatal motoneuron survival and function. Triple-knock-out mice exhibit increased motoneuron cell loss in the lumbar spinal cord that correlates with muscle weakness during early postnatal development. LIF deficiency leads to pronounced loss of distal axons and motor endplate alterations, whereas CNTF-and/or CT-1-deficient mice do not show significant changes in morphology of these structures. In cntf/lif/ct-1 triple-knock-out mice, various degrees of muscle fiber type grouping are found, indicating that denervation and reinnervation had occurred. We conclude from these findings that CNTF, LIF, and CT-1 have distinct functions for motoneuron survival and function and that LIF plays a more important role for postnatal maintenance of distal axons and motor endplates than CNTF or CT-1.

Cardiotrophin-1 (CT-1) can protect the adult heart from injury when added both prior to ischaemia and at reperfusion.

OBJECTIVES: To determine whether the cytokine cardiotrophin-1 (CT-1) can protect the adult heart against ischaemia/reperfusion when added either prior to ischaemia or at reperfusion. BACKGROUND: CT-1 has previously been shown to protect cultured embryonic or neonatal cardiocytes from cell death. To assess the therapeutic potential of CT-1, it is necessary to determine whether this effect can be observed in adult cardiac cells both in culture and most importantly in the intact heart. METHODS: We examined the protective effect of CT-1 both in cultured adult rat cardiocytes and in the rat intact heart. In both cases, the cardiac cells were exposed to hypoxia/ischaemia followed by reoxygenation/reperfusion and CT-1 was administered either prior to hypoxia/ischaemia or at reoxygenation/reperfusion. RESULTS: CT-1 has a protective effect in reducing ischaemic damage in the intact heart ex vivo as assayed by infarct size to area at risk ratio (20% compared to 35%). Similar protective effects against cell death were noted in adult cells in vitro. Both in vitro and ex vivo CT-1 can exert a protective effect when added at the time of reoxygenation/reperfusion as well as prior to the hypoxic/ischaemic stimulus (cell death reduced from 50 to 20% in TUNEL assay, infarct size to zone at risk ratio reduced from 35 to 20%). These protective effects are blocked by an inhibitor of the p42/p44 MAPK pathway. CONCLUSION: CT-1 can protect adult cardiac cells both in vitro and in vivo when added both prior to or after the hypoxic/ischaemic stimulus. The potential therapeutic benefit of CT-1 when added at the time of reperfusion following ischaemic damage is discussed.

Identification of Wnt responsive genes using a murine mammary epithelial cell line model system.

BACKGROUND: The Wnt/Wg pathway plays an important role in the developmental program of many cells and tissues in a variety of organisms. In addition, many Wnts and components of their downstream signaling pathways, such as beta-catenin and APC, have been implicated in tumorigenesis. Over the past years, several genes have been identified as Wnt responsive, including c-myc, siamois, and cyclin D1. RESULTS: In order to identify additional genes responsive to Wnt signaling that contribute to the transformed phenotype, we performed a cDNA subtractive hybridization screen between a mouse mammary epithelial cell line that overexpresses Wnt-1 (C57MG/Wnt-1) and the parental cell line (C57MG). The screen identified a total of 67 genes to be up-regulated in response to Wnt signaling. Of these 67 genes, the up-regulation of 62 was subsequently confirmed by Northern and dot blot analyses (and, for a subset, semi-quantitative PCR) of RNA isolated from C57MG cells subjected to (1) an independent Wnt-1 retroviral infection, and (2) co-culture with Wnt-1 expressing cells. Among the confirmed Wnt-1 responsive genes, we further characterized a mouse homolog of the human transcription factor Basic Transcription Element Binding protein 2 (BTEB2), Wnt-1 Responsive Cdc42 homolog (Wrch-1), and Wnt-1 Induced Secreted Protein (WISP-1). CONCLUSION: Several novel genes were identified in this screen, as well as others that have been shown previously to be regulated by Wnt signaling, such as connexin43. The results indicate that cDNA subtractive hybridization is a useful method for identifying genes involved in the process of Wnt-1-induced transformation.

Cardiotrophin-1 is an essential factor in the natural defense of the liver against apoptosis.

UNLABELLED: We previously reported that exogenous cardiotrophin-1 (CT-1), a member of the IL-6 family of cytokines, exerts hepatoprotective effects. Because CT-1 is expressed in the normal liver, we hypothesized that this cytokine may constitute an endogenous defense of the liver against proapoptotic stimuli. Here, we found that CT-1-/- mice died faster than wild-type animals after challenge with a lethal dose of the Fas agonist Jo-2. At sublethal doses of Jo-2, all wild-type mice survived whereas CT-1-/- animals developed extensive hepatocyte apoptosis with 50% mortality at 24 hours. Pretreatment with CT-1 improved survival and reduced injury in both CT-1-/- and wild-type animals. Upon Fas ligation the activation of STAT-3, a molecule that defends the liver against apoptosis, was lower in CT-1-/- mice than in wild-type animals despite similar IL-6 up-regulation in the 2 groups. Analysis of liver transcriptome in CT-1-/- and wild-type mice showed that 9 genes reported to be associated with cell survival/death functions were differentially expressed in the 2 groups. Four of these genes [IGFBP1, peroxiredoxin3, TNFR1, and calpastatin (endogenous inhibitor of calpain)] could be validated by real-time PCR. All of them were down-regulated in CT-1-/- mice and were modulated by CT-1 administration. Treatment of CT-1-/- animals with the calpain inhibitor MDL28170 afforded significant protection against Fas-induced liver injury. CONCLUSION: CT-1-/- mice are highly sensitive to Fas-mediated apoptosis due in part to deficient STAT-3 activation and inadequate control of calpain activity during the apoptotic process. Our data show that CT-1 is a natural defense of the liver against apoptosis. This cytokine may have therapeutic potential.

The lack of cardiotrophin-1 alters expression of interleukin-6 and leukemia inhibitory factor mRNA but does not impair cardiac injury response.

Cardiotrophin-1 (CT-1) was identified as a growth factor for cardiac myocytes and CT-1 protects myocytes from cell death. Adult CT-1(-/-) mice exhibit neural deficits including the loss of preganglionic sympathetic neurons, but their autonomic and cardiac parameters have not been examined. We used these mice to determine if the absence of CT-1 or loss of preganglionic sympathetic input altered heart rate, left ventricular pressure, cardiac contractility (dP/dt), or cell death following ischemia-reperfusion. Basal heart rate was increased in CT-1(-/-) mice, and this difference was abolished by ganglionic block. Left ventricular pressure and dP/dt were unchanged. Dobutamine stimulated similar increases in heart rate and dP/dt in both genotypes, but ventricular pressure was significantly lower in CT-1 nulls. Cardiac expression of interleukin-6 (IL-6) mRNA was increased significantly in CT-1 null mice, while leukemia inhibitory factor (LIF) mRNA was unchanged. Infarct size normalized to area at risk was no different in CT-1(-/-) mice (33.8+/-1.0% vs. 37.7+/-3.2% WT) 24h after ischemia-reperfusion. Induction of IL-6 mRNA after infarct was significantly abrogated in CT-1 null mice compared to wild-type mice, but LIF mRNA-induction remained significant in CT-1 null mice and might contribute to cardiac protection in the absence of CT-1.

BMP signaling initiates a neural crest differentiation program in embryonic rat CNS stem cells.

Bone morphogenetic proteins (BMPs) have an important role in neuronal and astrocytic differentiation of embryonic and adult neural stem cells (NSCs). Here, we show that BMP6, BMP7, GDF5, and GDF6 instructively differentiate E12, E14, and E17 rat cortical NSCs into a variety of neural crest lineages. Clonal analysis shows that BMP7-treated NSCs develop mostly into smooth muscle and peripheral glia. We observed a rapid induction of premigratory neural crest markers like p75NTR, and AP-2 alpha followed by Msx1, Msx2, and Slug, transcription factors that participate in neural crest development. These results suggest that NSCs cultured in vitro in the presence of FGF2 display expanded developmental potential.

Increased expression of cardiotrophin-1 during ventricular remodeling in hypertensive rats.

Cardiotrophin-1 (CT-1) stimulates longitudinal myocardial cell hypertrophy. We examined the expression of CT-1, leukemia inhibitory factor (LIF), and gp130 by competitive RT-PCR and Western blotting in Dahl salt-sensitive (DS) rats with a high-salt diet, which showed a distinct transition from left ventricular hypertrophy (LVH) to congestive heart failure (CHF). The expression levels of CT-1 mRNA and protein were significantly increased at the CHF stage compared with the LVH stage and age-matched Dahl salt-resistant (DR) rats (n = 6 for each group). mRNA expression of LIF was not changed in the left ventricle at any stage by RT-PCR. gp130 mRNA and protein levels of DS rats at 11 and 17 wk were significantly increased compared with age-matched DR rats. The isolated myocyte length of DS rats at 17 wk was the longest among the four groups of rats. The LV end-diastolic dimension (LVDd) of DS rats, determined by echocardiography, was significantly increased at the CHF stage. There was a significant correlation between the CT-1 protein level and LVDd. CT-1 may play a role in ventricular remodeling during transition from LVH to CHF in the rat hypertensive model.

Cardiotrophin-1 and urocortin cause protection by the same pathway and hypertrophy via distinct pathways in cardiac myocytes.

Cardiotrophin-1 (CT-1) is an Interleukin-6 family cytokine with known hypertrophic and protective effects in cardiac cells. CT-1 and the corticotrophin releasing hormone-like hormone urocortin protect cardiac myocytes by the same p42/44 mitogen activated protein kinase (p42/44 MAPK) dependent pathway. We investigated whether urocortin is also hypertrophic in cardiac myocytes and whether it shares a common pathway with CT-1 for this effect. Moreover, we also investigated, for the first time whether CT-1 and urocortin can induce hypertrophy in cultured adult as opposed to neonatal cardiac cells. Urocortin and CT-1 caused hypertrophy (as measured by an increase in cell area and enhanced protein: DNA ratio) in both adult and neonatal rat cultured cardiac myocytes. The hypertrophic effect of CT-1 was dependent on the signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3) pathway but the hypertrophic effect of urocortin was independent of this pathway. In contrast, inhibition of the protective p42/p44 MAPK pathway has no effect on the hypertrophic effect of CT-1 or urocortin. Additionally, inhibition of the STAT3 pathway has no effect on the protective effect of CT-1 or urocortin. These results identify urocortin as a novel hypertrophic and protective agent whose hypertrophic effect is mediated by a distinct pathway to that activated by CT-1, although the two factors mediate protection via the same pathway.

Synergistic induction of tumor antigens by Wnt-1 signaling and retinoic acid revealed by gene expression profiling.

Novel drug targets can be identified by differential analysis of RNA transcripts isolated from cancer cell lines and tissues. We have extended this approach by analyzing differences in gene expression resulting from the drug treatment of transformed and nontransformed cells. A mouse mammary epithelial cell line (C57MG), which conditionally expresses the Wnt-1 proto-oncogene, was left untreated or treated with retinoic acid in the presence or absence of Wnt-1 expression. The experiment was performed in triplicate, and RNA extracted from the four samples was analyzed by hybridization to over 12,000 unique oligonucleotide probe sets. Reproducible alterations in gene expression that occurred in response to retinoic acid, Wnt-1, or retinoic acid plus Wnt-1 relative to untreated cells were identified. Greater attention was given to genes encoding cell surface antigens that were selectively up-regulated by the combination of Wnt-1 and retinoic acid. These genes included the tumor necrosis factor family 4-1BB ligand, ephrin B1, stra6, autotaxin, and ISLR. Administration of retinoic acid to mice bearing tumors driven by activation of the Wnt-1/beta-catenin pathway resulted in increased expression of stra6 in the tumors but not in normal tissue. In principal, the therapeutic index of antibodies directed against these antigens should be enhanced by co-administration of retinoic acid.