Climate determines transmission hotspots of Polycystic Echinococcosis, a life-threatening zoonotic disease, across Pan-Amazonia.

Polycystic Echinococcosis (PE), a neglected life-threatening zoonotic disease caused by the cestode Echinococcus vogeli, is endemic in the Amazon. Despite being treatable, PE reaches a case fatality rate of around 29% due to late or missed diagnosis. PE is sustained in Pan-Amazonia by a complex sylvatic cycle. The hunting of its infected intermediate hosts (especially the lowland paca Cuniculus paca) enables the disease to further transmit to humans, when their viscera are improperly handled. In this study, we compiled a unique dataset of host occurrences (~86000 records) and disease infections (~400 cases) covering the entire Pan-Amazonia and employed different modeling and statistical tools to unveil the spatial distribution of PE's key animal hosts. Subsequently, we derived a set of ecological, environmental, climatic, and hunting covariates that potentially act as transmission risk factors and used them as predictors of two independent Maximum Entropy models, one for animal infections and one for human infections. Our findings indicate that temperature stability promotes the sylvatic circulation of the disease. Additionally, we show how El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) extreme events disrupt hunting patterns throughout Pan-Amazonia, ultimately affecting the probability of spillover. In a scenario where climate extremes are projected to intensify, climate change at regional level appears to be indirectly driving the spillover of E. vogeli. These results hold substantial implications for a wide range of zoonoses acquired at the wildlife-human interface for which transmission is related to the manipulation and consumption of wild meat, underscoring the pressing need for enhanced awareness and intervention strategies.

Levels of organochlorine pesticides in Amazon turtle (Podocnemis unifilis) in the Xingu River, Brazil.

Due to the toxicity and high environmental persistence of organochlorine pesticides in aquatic organisms, turtles have been studied as environment biomonitors. These animals are important sources of protein for the riverside and indigenous peoples of the Brazilian amazon. In the present study, organochlorine pesticide contamination was investigated in Podocnemis unifilis. Liver, muscle and fatty tissue samples were removed from 50 specimens collected from five sampling points located in the Xingu River basin. Fourteen organochlorine pesticides were analysed via gas chromatography with an electron capture detector (CG-ECD). Eight organochlorine pesticides were detected with average concentrations of ∑DDT, ∑Endossulfan and ∑HCH which were 26.17 ± 26.35, 14.38 ± 23.77 and 1.39 ± 8.46 ng g-1 in moisture content, respectively. DDT compounds were the most predominant, with a greater concentration of pp'-DDT in the liver and pp'-DDD in the muscle. Significant differences were noted between the types of tissues studied, and the concentration of OCPs varied between sampling sites.

Population structure and allometry of Podocnemis unifilis (Testudines, Podocnemididae) in a protected area upstream Belo Monte dam in Xingu River, Brazil.

Amazon river turtles are increasingly threatened by habitat loss and alteration due to the Brazilian energy policy based on construction of hydroelectric dams, meanwhile, populational studies remain scarce. We described the population structure, and established body allometric relationships of Podocnemis unifilis in the Terra do Meio Ecological Station in the Iriri River, tributary of the Xingu River upstream the Belo Monte dam under construction Turtles were captured by hand net and diving in 2012 and 2013 dry seasons, and 2013 rainy season. A total of 728 males, 296 females and four juveniles were captured. Adult sex ratio was male-biased by 9.15 ♂:1 ♀. Females were significantly larger than males. Mean straight carapace length was 268.9 ± 46.7 mm (165 - 403) for females; and 232.7 ± 24.8 mm (167 - 303) for males. The sexes were morphologically distinct in function of a proportionally larger plastron, and higher carapace, on females. Allometric relationships between straight carapace length and other morphometric traits were strong for males (R2 range = 0.87 - 0.96 and females (R2 range =0.79 - 0.98. Exploitation of P. unifilis in biomass extirpated from the Middle Xingu River may be estimated from body parts found post-consumption by the presented regressions.

Dietary breadth of the animal protein consumed by riverine communities in the Tapajós National Forest, Brazil.

In small-scale human settlements, the acquisition of animal protein is strictly related to subsistence activities, and yours dietary habits are determined by the availability and the selectivity permitted by the diversity of these resources. This study analyzed the consumption of animal protein sources in seven traditional riverine communities of the Tapajos National Forest, located in Eastern Brazilian Amazonia, considering fish, game meat and domestic animals. The analysis of animal protein consumption was based on the assumptions of the diet breadth model and the Optimal Foraging Theory. We compared diet breadths between communities and between rainy and dry seasons. The study focused on seven traditional riverside communities, six of them distributed along the right bank of the Tapajos River and one on the right bank of the Cupari River. Data collection was performed in four fields trips, two in the rainy season (May and July) and two in the dry season (September and November) in 2010. Data were collected through semi-structured interviews where the informant mentioned the source of animal protein consumed in the last three meals and which would be consumed at the next meal, if possible. We carried out a total of 470 interviews, where we documented 1 512 meals, and in only 12% of the meals there was no consumption of any animal protein source. The fish was consumed in 60.4% of the meals, being the most important source of animal protein consumed, differing significantly from other protein sources (X2=23.79, df=5, p<0.001). A total of 11 species of wild animals and 46 species of fish were consumed. The choice in the consumption of game meat consisted on Tayassu pecari, Hydrochoerus hidrochaeris and Cuniculus paca, while the preference for fish consumption included Plagioscion spp., Astronotus spp., Cichla spp. and Leporinus spp.. The Simpson index did not vary significantly between the rainy and dry season (N=6, t=1.25, p=0.267) or between communities (N=6, t=-5, p=0.42), although SLo Francisco das Chagas have significantly higher consumption of game meat (X2=370.41, df=25, p<0.001). Fishing is an activity of paramount importance to these communities, and factors that lead to decreased availability of fish may lead to subsequent increase in hunting pressure. For the conservation of preserve of both wildlife natural resources and practices of subsistence of riverine communities of the Tapajós National Forest, it is necessary to ensure the maintenance of fish stocks and the protection of the Tapajós River areas large enough to maintain viable populations of wild animals and more tolerant to hunting and habitat loss.

A review on human attitudes towards reptiles in Brazil.

For many millennia humans and reptiles have interacted, but the attitude of humans towards these animals has depended on culture, environment, and personal experience. At least 719 reptile species are known to occur in Brazil and about 11% of this fauna has been exploited for many different purposes, including bushmeat, leather, ornamental and magic/religious uses, and as folk medicines. Brazil can therefore serve as an interesting case study for better understanding reptile use by human societies, and the present paper catalogues some of the reptile species being used in Brazil and discusses implications for their conservation. A literature review indicated that 81 reptile species are culturally important in this country, with 47 (58%) species having multiple uses, 54 being used for medicinal purposes, 38 as food, 28 for ornamental or decorative purposes, 20 used in magic/religious practices, 18 as pets, and 40 are commonly killed when they come into contact with humans. Regarding their conservation status, 30 (37.5%) are included on State's Red List, Brazilian Red List or the IUCN Red List. There are many forms of interaction between reptiles and humans in Brazil-although most of them are quite negative in terms of wildlife conservation-which reinforces the importance of understanding such uses and interactions in the context of protecting reptiles in Brazil. A better understanding of the cultural, social, and traditional roles of these reptiles is fundamental to establishing management plans for their sustainable use.

Habitat use, size structure and sex ratio of the spot-legged turtle, Rhinoclemmys punctularia punctularia (Testudines: Geoemydidae), in Algodoal-Maiandeua Island, Pará, Brazil.

Rhinoclemmys punctularia punctularia is a semi-aquatic chelonian found in Northern South America. We analyzed the habitat use, size structure and sex ratio of the species on Algodoal-Maiandeua Island, a protected area on the Northeastern coast of the Brazilian state of Pará. Four distinct habitats (coastal plain lake, flooded forest "igapó", interdunal lakes, and tidal channels) were surveyed during the rainy (March and April) and dry (August and September) seasons of 2009, using hoop traps. For the analysis of population structure, additional data were taken in March and August, 2008. A total of 169 individuals were captured in flooded forest (igapó), lakes of the coastal plain and, occasionally, in temporary pools. Capture rates were highest in the coastal plain lake, possibly due to the greater availability of the fruits that form part of the diet of R. p. punctularia. Of the physical-chemical variables measured, salinity appeared to be the only factor to have a significant negative effect on capture rates. The sex ratio was only slightly biased to females, and did not vary between habitats or seasons. Straight carapace length was significantly larger in females, but did not vary between habitats. Overall, the evidence indicates that both biotic and abiotic factors like food availability, low current and salinity, influence the habitats selection and use by R. p. punctularia on Algodoal-Maiandeua Island.

Habitat use of the ocelot (Leopardus pardalis) in Brazilian Amazon.

Amazonia forest plays a major role in providing ecosystem services for human and sanctuaries for wildlife. However, ongoing deforestation and habitat fragmentation in the Brazilian Amazon has threatened both. The ocelot is an ecologically important mesopredator and a potential conservation ambassador species, yet there are no previous studies on its habitat preference and spatial patterns in this biome. From 2010 to 2017, twelve sites were surveyed, totaling 899 camera trap stations, the largest known dataset for this species. Using occupancy modeling incorporating spatial autocorrelation, we assessed habitat use for ocelot populations across the Brazilian Amazon. Our results revealed a positive sigmoidal correlation between remote-sensing derived metrics of forest cover, disjunct core area density, elevation, distance to roads, distance to settlements and habitat use, and that habitat use by ocelots was negatively associated with slope and distance to river/lake. These findings shed light on the regional scale habitat use of ocelots and indicate important species-habitat relationships, thus providing valuable information for conservation management and land-use planning.

Assessment of Mercury Concentration in Turtles (Podocnemis unifilis) in the Xingu River Basin, Brazil.

Many studies on mercury contamination in aquatic biota deal with the effect of consuming metal-contaminated organisms on human health. In this study, we examined the factors that cause mercury contamination in Podocnemis unifilis in the Xingu River Basin of Mato Grosso and Pará States, Brazil. We quantified by atomic absorption spectroscopy with cold vapor the total mercury (THg) content in the liver and muscle samples of 50 Podocnemis unifilis specimens collected from the basin. The liver and muscle samples contained 134.20 ± 119.30 ng g−1 THg and 24.86 ± 26.36 ng g−1 THg, respectively. Each chelonian or meal has, on average, 5.34× more Hg than the highest level established as acceptable. From the results it can be inferred that, given the weekly consumption of chelonians, the riverine and indigenous communities in the Xingu River Basin are at risk of chronic consumption of Hg in amounts beyond the acceptable limit. The potential high risk to the health of this population is evident; however, the risk classification needs to be further studied.

Chain of commercialization of Podocnemis spp. turtles (Testudines: Podocnemididae) in the Purus River, Amazon basin, Brazil: current status and perspectives.

BACKGROUND: Consumption of turtles by natives and settlers in the Amazon and Orinoco has been widely studied in scientific communities. Accepted cultural customs and the local dietary and monetary needs need to be taken into account in conservation programs, and when implementing federal laws related to consumption and fishing methods. This study was conducted around the Purus River, a region known for the consumption and illegal trade of turtles. The objective of this study was to quantify the illegal turtle trade in Tapauá and to understand its effect on the local economy. METHODS: This study was conducted in the municipality of Tapauá in the state of Amazonas, Brazil. To estimate turtle consumption, interviews were conducted over 2 consecutive years (2006 and 2007) in urban areas and isolated communities. The experimental design was randomized with respect to type of household. To study the turtle fishery and trade chain, we used snowball sampling methodology. RESULTS: During our study period, 100% of respondents reported consuming at least three species of turtles (Podocnemis spp.). Our estimates indicate that about 34 tons of animals are consumed annually in Tapauá along the margins of a major fishing river in the Amazon. At least five components related to the chain of commercialization of turtles on the Purus River are identified: Indigenous Apurinã and (2) residents of bordering villages (communities); (3) of local smugglers buy and sell turtles to the community in exchange for manufactured goods, and (4) regional smugglers buy in Tapauá, Lábrea, and Beruri to sell in Manaus and Manacapuru; Finally, (5) there are professional fishermen. CONCLUSIONS: We quantify the full impact of turtle consumption and advocate the conservation of the region's turtle populations. The Brazilian government should initiate a new turtle consumption management program which involves the opinions of consumers. With these measures the conservation of freshwater turtles in the Brazilian Amazon, is possible.

Collaborative research and the hunting in the Brazilian Cerrado: The case of Xerente Indigenous Land / Pesquisa Colaborativa e a Caça no Cerrado Brasileiro: O caso da Terra Indígena Xerente

Abstract: This paper presents a study of the hunting activities on Xerente Indigenous Land (XIL) in the Brazilian Cerrado. We used data from a Hunting Monitoring Program from eight villages to evaluate the effects of village age, distance from village to town and season (wet and dry) on the composition of hunted species, animals and biomass killed and availability of preferred game-species. We also assessed for any indication of fauna depletion around the villages. Distance from village to town and season were the only variables which affected composition. Preferred species occured more often in villages closer to the town. However, these villages present strong indications of local game-species depletion. The hunters' great capacity for spatial movement can eliminate this effect. Animals and biomass killed was high in the dry season. Game-species composition between seasons can avoid the overexploitation of some sensitive species, such as low-land tapir. These results are important in the design of local management and conservation plans. Our results also contribute to further understanding the impacts of hunting in open Neotropical environments.

Resumo: Este artigo apresenta um estudo sobre a atividade de caça na Terra Indígena Xerente (TIX), Cerrado brasileiro. Utilizamos dados do Programa de Monitoramento de Caça em oito aldeias para avaliar os efeitos da idade da aldeia, a distância da aldeia para cidade e a estação (úmida e seca) sobre a composição de espécies caçadas, animais e biomassa abatidos e a disponibilidade de espécies preferidas para o consumo. Também avaliamos a indicação de depleção da fauna ao redor das aldeias. Distância da aldeia para a cidade e estação foram as únicas variáveis que afetaram a composição das espécies. Espécies preferidas ocorreram mais frequentemente em aldeias mais próximas à cidade. No entanto, essas aldeias apresentam fortes indicativos de depleção local das espécies. Entretanto, a grande capacidade de locomoção dos caçadores pode eliminar esse efeito. Animais e biomassa abatidos foram maiores durante a estação seca. A composição das espécies cinegéticas entre as estações pode evitar a exploração excessiva de algumas espécies sensíveis, como a anta. Esses resultados são importantes na elaboração de planos locais de manejo e conservação. Nossos resultados também contribuem para o melhor entendimento dos impactos da caça em ambientes neotropicais abertos.

BYCATCH OF Helicops angulatus (LINNAEUS 1758) (REPTILIA: SQUAMATA: COLUBRIDAE) IN HOOP-TRAPS USED TO CAPTURE FRESH WATER TURTLES ON THE COAST OF PARÁ, BRAZIL / Captura accidental de Helicops angulatus (Linnaeus 1758) (Reptilia: Squamata: Colubridae) en trampas en embudo usadas para capturar tortugas dulceacuícolas en la costa de Pará, Brasil

Between September, 2007, and August, 2009, six field excursions were conducted on the northern Brazilian coast (Romana and Maiandeua islands, state of Pará) for the collection of specimens of freshwater turtles (Rhinoclemmys punctularia and Kinosternon scorpioides) in natural ponds. Hoop trap were used and 35 specimens of brown-banded water snakes, Helicops angulatus, were captured as bycatch in the traps. Thus, in addition to turtles, the procedure may be useful to sample populations of aquatic snakes.

Entre septiembre de 2007 y agosto de 2009, seis excursiones de campo se llevaron a cabo en la costa norte de Brasil (islas Romana y Maiandeua, estado de Pará) para la recolección de especímenes de tortugas de agua dulce (Rhinoclemmys punctularia y Kinosternon scorpioides) en posos naturales. Utilizamos trampas en embudo. 35 ejemplares de la serpiente acuática Helicops angulatus, fueron capturados como pesca incidental en las trampas. Por lo tanto, además de las tortugas, el procedimiento puede ser útil para la toma de muestras de las poblaciones de serpientes acuáticas.

Dietary breadth of the animal protein consumed by riverine communities in the Tapajós National Forest, Brazil

In small-scale human settlements, the acquisition of animal protein is strictly related to subsistence activities, and yours dietary habits are determined by the availability and the selectivity permitted by the diversity of these resources. This study analyzed the consumption of animal protein sources in seven traditional riverine communities of the Tapajos National Forest, located in Eastern Brazilian Amazonia, considering fish, game meat and domestic animals. The analysis of animal protein consumption was based on the assumptions of the diet breadth model and the Optimal Foraging Theory. We compared diet breadths between communities and between rainy and dry seasons. The study focused on seven traditional riverside communities, six of them distributed along the right bank of the Tapajos River and one on the right bank of the Cupari River. Data collection was performed in four fields trips, two in the rainy season (May and July) and two in the dry season (September and November) in 2010. Data were collected through semi-structured interviews where the informant mentioned the source of animal protein consumed in the last three meals and which would be consumed at the next meal, if possible. We carried out a total of 470 interviews, where we documented 1 512 meals, and in only 12% of the meals there was no consumption of any animal protein source. The fish was consumed in 60.4% of the meals, being the most important source of animal protein consumed, differing significantly from other protein sources (χ²=23.79, df=5, p<0.001). A total of 11 species of wild animals and 46 species of fish were consumed. The choice in the consumption of game meat consisted on Tayassu pecari, Hydrochoerus hidrochaeris and Cuniculus paca, while the preference for fish consumption included Plagioscion spp., Astronotus spp., Cichla spp. and Leporinus spp.. The Simpson index did not vary significantly between the rainy and dry season (N=6, t=1.25, p=0.267) or between communities (N=6, t=5, p=0.42), although São Francisco das Chagas have significantly higher consumption of game meat (χ²=370.41, df=25, p<0.001). Fishing is an activity of paramount importance to these communities, and factors that lead to decreased availability of fish may lead to subsequent increase in hunting pressure. For the conservation of preserve of both wildlife natural resources and practices of subsistence of riverine communities of the Tapajós National Forest, it is necessary to ensure the maintenance of fish stocks and the protection of the Tapajós River areas large enough to maintain viable populations of wild animals and more tolerant to hunting and habitat loss.

En pequeños asentamientos rurales, la adquisición de proteína animal está estrechamente relacionada con actividades de subsistencia, y su hábitos alimentares son determinados por la disponibilidad y diversidad de estos recursos. Este estudio examinó el consumo de pescado, caza y animales domésticos en siete comunidades tradicionales ribereñas de la Floresta Nacional do Tapajós, ubicadas en la Amazonia oriental Brasileña. La análisis se basa en los supuestos de modelos de la amplitud de la dieta y la teoría de forrajeo óptimo, se comparó la amplitud de dieta en siete comunidades ribereñas en periodo seco y lluvioso. La recolección de datos se realizó en cuatro viajes, dos en la temporada de lluvias y dos en la estación seca en el 2010, mediante entrevistas semi-estructuradas. El pescado fue consumido en el 60.4% de las comidas, siendo la fuente de proteína animal más consumida. Un total de 11 especies de animales silvestres y 46 especies de pescado fueron documentadas y la preferencia en el consumo cayó sobre T. pecari, C. paca y Hydrochoerus hidrochaeris y la preferencia por el consumo de pescado cayó sobre Plagioscion spp. Astronotus spp., Cichla spp. y Leporinus spp.

Habitat use, size structure and sex ratio of the spot-legged turtle, Rhinoclemmys punctularia punctularia (Testudines: Geoemydidae), in Algodoal-Maiandeua Island, Pará, Brazil

Rhinoclemmys punctularia punctularia is a semi-aquatic chelonian found in Northern South America. We analyzed the habitat use, size structure and sex ratio of the species on Algodoal-Maiandeua Island, a protected area on the Northeastern coast of the Brazilian state of Pará. Four distinct habitats (coastal plain lake, flooded forest “igapó”, interdunal lakes, and tidal channels) were surveyed during the rainy (March and April) and dry (August and September) seasons of 2009, using hoop traps. For the analysis of population structure, additional data were taken in March and August, 2008. A total of 169 individuals were captured in flooded forest (igapó), lakes of the coastal plain and, occasionally, in temporary pools. Capture rates were highest in the coastal plain lake, possibly due to the greater availability of the fruits that form part of the diet of R. p. punctularia. Of the physical-chemical variables measured, salinity appeared to be the only factor to have a significant negative effect on capture rates. The sex ratio was only slightly biased to females, and did not vary between habitats or seasons. Straight carapace length was significantly larger in females, but did not vary between habitats. Overall, the evidence indicates that both biotic and abiotic factors like food availability, low current and salinity, influence the habitats selection and use by R. p. punctularia on Algodoal-Maiandeua Island.

Rhinoclemmys punctularia punctularia es un quelonio semi-acuático, con amplia distribución geográfica. El presente trabajo analiza la densidad relativa, proporción sexual y el uso de hábitat de esta especie en la isla de Algodoal-Maiandeua, en el litoral Norte de Brasil. Cuatro hábitats distintos fueron muestreados durante los períodos de lluvias y seco de 2009, en donde se utilizaron trampas de aro. Muestras de 2008 (marzo-agosto) también se emplearon para el análisis de la estructura de la población. Asimismo, fueron encontrados 169 ejemplares en el bosque inundado, lagunas de tierras bajas y, ocasionalmente, en lagunas temporales. Las tasas de captura fueron más altas en las lagunas costeras, posiblemente debido a la mayor disponibilidad de frutos, que sirven de alimento para esta especie. De las variables físico-químicas, la salinidad fue el único factor que se correlaciona inversamente con las tasas de captura. La proporción de sexos fue ligeramente superior en las hembras, pero no varió entre los hábitats o período del año. El tamaño promedio de los individuos fue mayor en las hembras, pero no varió entre hábitats. Los factores ambientales, como la disponibilidad de alimentos, la baja salinidad y la poca corriente, probablemente hayan favorecido la selección y el uso de estos hábitats por R. p. punctularia.

Etnografia e manejo de recursos naturais pelos índios Deni, Amazonas, Brasil / Ethnography and natural resources management by the Deni Indians, Amazonas, Brazil

São raros os estudos envolvendo o uso múltiplo de recursos naturais por populações amazônicas. Este trabalho apresenta um panorama de como os índios Deni, habitantes da região de interflúvio entre dois dos maiores afluentes de água branca da bacia amazônica, os rios Juruá e Purus, utilizam dos recursos disponíveis em seu território. Os Deni são, atualmente, índios que vivem da exploração de recursos da terra firme e de regiões alagadas. São um misto de horticultores e caçadores/coletores, que utilizam toda a sua área para a obtenção de recursos para subsistência. Como regra, deslocam periodicamente seus assentamentos, evitando o esgotamento local de recursos, e provocando a modificação local do ambiente. Esta alteração aumenta temporariamente a disponibilidade de alimento. Áreas com aldeias, pomares e roçados abandonados, por sua vez, tornam-se locais onde se concentram inúmeros recursos da flora e da fauna, posteriormente explorados. O impacto provocado por este sistema é aparentemente mínimo. Os Deni estão contextualizados na periferia de um sistema capitalista, onde a única fonte de renda para adquirir bens que são hoje considerados pelos índios como indispensáveis para sua sobrevivência são os recursos naturais. Estes são e continuarão sendo explorados de maneira a produzir um excedente a ser comercializado para a obtenção de uma série de produtos industrializados, independentemente das opiniões externas. É sobre este patamar que devemos avaliar a sustentabilidade do atual manejo da área.

Studies concerning the use of multiple natural resources by Amazonian indians are scarce. This work presents a portrait of how the Deni Indians, inhabitants of an area between two of the most important white-water rivers of the Amazon basin (Juruá and Purus Rivers), exploit natural resources in their territory. The Deni exploit both the upland and floodplain forests. They are a mix of horticulturalists and hunter-gatherers, using their whole territory to obtain what they need to live. As a rule, they move their settlements periodically, avoiding local resource depletion. The Deni modify the landscape at a local level, causing an increase in resource availability. Abandoned villages, fruit orchards and crops are places where floristic and faunistic resources concentrate and are systematically exploited. The impacts of such management are apparently minimal. For the Deni society natural resources are the only way to get goods for survival, but it is inserted in the periphery of a capitalist system which exploits and will continue to exploit natural resources in order to produce a surplus for the acquisition of industrialized products, independently of external judgements. This should be the starting point to evaluate sustainability in this local management system.