HIPK2 as a Novel Regulator of Fibrosis.

Fibrosis is an unmet medical problem due to a lack of evident biomarkers to help develop efficient targeted therapies. Fibrosis can affect almost every organ and eventually induce organ failure. Homeodomain-interacting protein kinase 2 (HIPK2) is a protein kinase that controls several molecular pathways involved in cell death and development and it has been extensively studied, mainly in the cancer biology field. Recently, a role for HIPK2 has been highlighted in tissue fibrosis. Thus, HIPK2 regulates several pro-fibrotic pathways such as Wnt/ß-catenin, TGF-ß and Notch involved in renal, pulmonary, liver and cardiac fibrosis. These findings suggest a wider role for HIPK2 in tissue physiopathology and highlight HIPK2 as a promising target for therapeutic purposes in fibrosis. Here, we will summarize the recent studies showing the involvement of HIPK2 as a novel regulator of fibrosis.

The Sweet Side of HIPK2.

HIPK2 is an evolutionary conserved protein kinase which modulates many molecular pathways involved in cellular functions such as apoptosis, DNA damage response, protein stability, and protein transcription. HIPK2 plays a key role in the cancer cell response to cytotoxic drugs as its deregulation impairs drug-induced cancer cell death. HIPK2 has also been involved in regulating fibrosis, angiogenesis, and neurological diseases. Recently, hyperglycemia was found to positively and/or negatively regulate HIPK2 activity, affecting not only cancer cell response to chemotherapy but also the progression of some diabetes complications. The present review will discuss how HIPK2 may be influenced by the high glucose (HG) metabolic condition and the consequences of such regulation in medical conditions.

HIPK2 in Angiogenesis: A Promising Biomarker in Cancer Progression and in Angiogenic Diseases.

Angiogenesis is the formation of new blood capillaries taking place from preexisting functional vessels, a process that allows cells to cope with shortage of nutrients and low oxygen availability. Angiogenesis may be activated in several pathological diseases, from tumor growth and metastases formation to ischemic and inflammatory diseases. New insights into the mechanisms that regulate angiogenesis have been discovered in the last years, leading to the discovery of new therapeutic opportunities. However, in the case of cancer, their success may be limited by the occurrence of drug resistance, meaning that the road to optimize such treatments is still long. Homeodomain-interacting protein kinase 2 (HIPK2), a multifaceted protein that regulates different molecular pathways, is involved in the negative regulation of cancer growth, and may be considered a "bona fide" oncosuppressor molecule. In this review, we will discuss the emerging link between HIPK2 and angiogenesis and how the control of angiogenesis by HIPK2 impinges in the pathogenesis of several diseases, including cancer.

NCX 4040, a nitric oxide-donating aspirin, exerts anti-inflammatory effects through inhibition of I kappa B-alpha degradation in human monocytes.

NO-donating aspirins consist of aspirin to which a NO-donating group is covalently linked via a spacer molecule. NCX 4040 and NCX 4016 are positional isomers with respect to the -CH(2)ONO(2) group (para and meta, respectively) on the benzene ring of the spacer. Because positional isomerism is critical for antitumor properties of NO-donating aspirins, we aimed to compare their anti-inflammatory effects with those of aspirin in vitro. Thus, we assessed their impacts on cyclooxygenase-2 activity (by measuring PGE(2) levels), protein expression, and cytokine generation(IL-1beta, IL-18, TNF-alpha, and IL-10) in human whole blood and isolated human monocytes stimulated with LPS. Interestingly, we found that micromolar concentrations of NCX 4040, but not NCX 4016 or aspirin, affected cyclooxygenase-2 expression and cytokine generation. We compared the effects of NCX 4040 with those of NCX 4016 or aspirin on IkappaB-alpha stabilization and proteasome activity in the LPS-stimulated human monocytic cell line THP1. Differently from aspirin and NCX 4016, NCX 4040, at a micromolar concentration range, inhibited IkappaB-alpha degradation. In fact, NCX 4040 caused concentration-dependent accumulation of IkappaB-alpha and its phosphorylated form. This effect was not reversed by 1H-[1,2,4]oxadiazolo[4,3-a]quinoxalin-1-one, an inhibitor of guanylyl cyclase, thus excluding the contribution of NO-dependent cGMP generation. In contrast, IkappaB-alpha accumulation by NCX 4040 may involve an inhibitory effect on proteasome functions. Indeed, NCX 4040 inhibited 20S proteasome activity when incubated with intact cells but not in the presence of cell lysate supernatants, thus suggesting an indirect inhibitory effect. In conclusion, NCX 4040 is an inhibitor of IkappaB-alpha degradation and proteasome function, and it should be taken into consideration for the development of novel anti-inflammatory and chemopreventive agents.

The Impact of NRF2 Inhibition on Drug-Induced Colon Cancer Cell Death and p53 Activity: A Pilot Study.

Nuclear factor erythroid 2 (NF-E2) p45-related factor 2 (NRF2) protein is the master regulator of oxidative stress, which is at the basis of various chronic diseases including cancer. Hyperactivation of NRF2 in already established cancers can promote cell proliferation and resistance to therapies, such as in colorectal cancer (CRC), one of the most lethal and prevalent malignancies in industrialized countries with limited patient overall survival due to its escape mechanisms in both chemo- and targeted therapies. In this study, we generated stable NRF2 knockout colon cancer cells (NRF2-Cas9) to investigate the cell response to chemotherapeutic drugs with regard to p53 oncosuppressor, whose inhibition we previously showed to correlate with NRF2 pathway activation. Here, we found that NRF2 activation by sulforaphane (SFN) reduced cisplatin (CDDP)-induced cell death only in NRF2-proficient cells (NRF2-ctr) compared to NRF2-Cas9 cells. Mechanistically, we found that NRF2 activation protected NRF2-ctr cells from the drug-induced DNA damage and the apoptotic function of the unfolded protein response (UPR), in correlation with reduction of p53 activity, effects that were not observed in NRF2-Cas9 cells. Finally, we found that ZnCl2 supplementation rescued the cisplatin cytotoxic effects, as it impaired NRF2 activation, restoring p53 activity. These findings highlight NRF2's key role in neutralizing the cytotoxic effects of chemotherapeutic drugs in correlation with reduced DNA damage and p53 activity. They also suggest that NRF2 inhibition could be a useful strategy for efficient anticancer chemotherapy and support the use of ZnCl2 to inhibit NRF2 pathway in combination therapies.

P62/SQSTM1/Keap1/NRF2 Axis Reduces Cancer Cells Death-Sensitivity in Response to Zn(II)-Curcumin Complex.

The hyperactivation of nuclear factor erythroid 2 p45-related factor 2 (NRF2), frequently found in many tumor types, can be responsible for cancer resistance to therapies and poor patient prognosis. Curcumin has been shown to activate NRF2 that has cytotprotective or protumorigenic roles according to tumor stage. The present study aimed at investigating whether the zinc-curcumin Zn(II)-curc compound, which we previously showed to display anticancer effects through multiple mechanisms, could induce NRF2 activation and to explore the underlying molecular mechanisms. Biochemical studies showed that Zn(II)-curc treatment increased the NRF2 protein levels along with its targets, heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) and p62/SQSTM1, while markedly reduced the levels of Keap1 (Kelch-like ECH-associated protein 1), the NRF2 inhibitor, in the cancer cell lines analyzed. The silencing of either NRF2 or p62/SQSTM1 with specific siRNA demonstrated the crosstalk between the two molecules and that the knockdown of either molecule increased the cancer cell sensitivity to Zn(II)-curc-induced cell death. This suggests that the crosstalk between p62/SQSTM1 and NRF2 could be therapeutically exploited to increase cancer patient response to therapies.

A ruthenium(II)-curcumin compound modulates NRF2 expression balancing the cancer cell death/survival outcome according to p53 status.

BACKGROUND: Tumor progression and tumor response to anticancer therapies may be affected by activation of oncogenic pathways such as the antioxidant one induced by NRF2 (nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2) transcription factor and the pathways modified by deregulation of oncosuppressor p53. Often, oncogenic pathways may crosstalk between them increasing tumor progression and resistance to anticancer therapies. Therefore, understanding that interplay is critical to improve cancer cell response to therapies. In this study we aimed at evaluating NRF2 and p53 in several cancer cell lines carrying different endogenous p53 status, using a novel curcumin compound since curcumin has been shown to target both NRF2 and p53 and have anti-tumor activity. METHODS: We performed biochemical and molecular studies by using pharmacologic of genetic inhibition of NRF2 to evaluate the effect of curcumin compound in cancer cell lines of different tumor types bearing wild-type (wt) p53, mutant (mut) p53 or p53 null status. RESULTS: We found that the curcumin compound induced a certain degree of cell death in all tested cancer cell lines, independently of the p53 status. At molecular level, the curcumin compound induced NRF2 activation, mutp53 degradation and/or wtp53 activation. Pharmacologic or genetic NRF2 inhibition further increased the curcumin-induced cell death in both mutp53- and wtp53-carrying cancer cell lines while it did not increase cell death in p53 null cells, suggesting a cytoprotective role for NRF2 and a critical role for functional p53 to achieve an efficient cancer cell response to therapy. CONCLUSIONS: These findings underline the prosurvival role of curcumin-induced NRF2 expression in cancer cells even when cells underwent mutp53 downregulation and/or wtp53 activation. Thus, NRF2 inhibition increased cell demise particularly in cancer cells carrying p53 either wild-type or mutant suggesting that p53 is crucial for efficient cancer cell death. These results may represent a paradigm for better understanding the cancer cell response to therapies in order to design more efficient combined anticancer therapies targeting both NRF2 and p53.

The Horizon Scanning System at The Italian Medicines Agency.

The new era of medical innovation is a great opportunity for healthcare; but it poses new challenges for affordability of healthcare systems. To enable timely implementation of value-based clinical care and payment approaches, it is important to look beyond usual timescales to inform decision makers about forthcoming disruptive technologies early. Horizon scanning could represent an efficient tool in support of decision making and rational use of available resources. Different horizon scanning programmes exist in Europe and there is a need for further international cooperation between competent authorities. In relation to this, the present review aims to highlight the importance of early information availability and illustrates the Italian Medicines Agency Horizon Scanning System in the context of the European regulatory network.

Reduced chemotherapeutic sensitivity in high glucose condition: implication of antioxidant response.

Resistance to chemotherapy represents a major obstacle to successful treatment. The generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) has been directly linked to the cytotoxic effects of several antitumor agents, including Adriamycin (ADR), and modulation of the oxidative balance has been implicated in the development and/or regulation of resistance to chemotherapeutic drugs. We recently showed that high glucose (HG) markedly diminished the cancer cell death induced by anticancer agents such as ADR. In the present study we attempted to evaluate the mechanism that impaired the cytotoxic effect of ADR in HG. We found that, in colon cancer cells, HG attenuated ADR-induced ROS production that consequently diminished ADR-induced H2AX phosphorylation and micronuclei (MN) formation. Mechanistically, HG attenuation of ADR-induced ROS production correlated with increased antioxidant response promoted by NRF2 activity. Thus, pharmacologic inhibition of NRF2 pathway by brusatol re-established the ADR cytotoxic effect impaired by HG. Together, the data provide new insights into chemotherapeutic-resistance mechanisms in HG condition dictated by increased NRF2-induced antioxidant response and how they may be overcome in order to restore chemosensitivity and ADR-induced cell death.

Overexpression of HIPK2 circumvents the blockade of apoptosis in chemoresistant ovarian cancer cells.

OBJECTIVE: Chemoresistance, due to inhibition of apoptotic response, is the major reason for the failure of anticancer therapies. HIPK2 regulates p53-apoptotic function via serine-46 (Ser46) phosphorylation and activation of p53 is a key determinant in ovarian cancer cell death. In this study we determined whether HIPK2 overexpression restored apoptotic response in chemoresistant cancer cells. METHODS: Using cisplatin chemosensitive (2008) and chemoresistant (2008C13) ovarian cancer cell lines we compared drug-induced activation of the HIPK2/p53Ser46 apoptotic pathway. The levels of HIPK2, Ser46 phosphorylation, and PARP cleavage were detected by Western blotting. The p53Ser46 apoptotic commitment was evaluated by luciferase assay using the Ser46 specific AIP1 target gene promoter. The apoptotic pathway was detected by caspase-3, -8, and -9 activities. RESULTS: HIPK2 was expressed differently in sensitive versus chemoresistant cells in response to different chemotherapeutic drugs (i.e., cisplatin and adriamycin), though the p53Ser46 apoptotic pathway was not defective in chemoresistant 2008C13 cells. Thus, 2008C13 cells were resistant to cisplatin but sensitive to adriamycin-induced apoptosis through activation of the HIPK2/p53Ser46 pathway. HIPK2 knock-down inhibited the adriamycin-induced apoptosis in 2008C13 cells. Exogenous HIPK2 triggered apoptosis in chemoresistant cells, associated with induction of p53Ser46-target gene AIP1. CONCLUSIONS: HIPK2 is an important regulator of p53 activity in response to a chemotherapeutic drug. These results suggest that different drug-activated pathways may regulate HIPK2 and that HIPK2/p53Ser46 deregulation is involved in chemoresistance. Exogenous HIPK2 might represent a novel therapeutic approach to circumvent inhibition of apoptosis in treatment of chemoresistant ovarian cancers with wtp53.

Innovative Therapeutic Strategies for Cystic Fibrosis: Moving Forward to CRISPR Technique.

One of the most revolutionary technologies in recent years in the field of molecular biology is CRISPR-Cas9. CRISPR technology is a promising tool for gene editing that provides researchers the opportunity to easily alter DNA sequences and modify gene function. Its many potential applications include correcting genetic defects, treating and preventing the spread of diseases. Cystic fibrosis (CF) is one of the most common lethal genetic diseases caused by mutations in the CF transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) gene. Although CF is an old acquaintance, there is still no effective/resolutive cure. Life expectancy has improved thanks to the combination of various treatments, but it is generally below average. Recently, a significant number of additional key medications have become licensed in Europe for the CF treatment including CFTR modulators. But innovative genomically-guided therapies have begun for CF and it is predictable that this will lead to rapid improvements in CF clinical disease and survival in the next decades. In this way, CRISPR-Cas9 approach may represent a valid tool to repair the CFTR mutation and hopeful results were obtained in tissue and animal models of CF disease.

Neuro-differentiated Ntera2 cancer stem cells encapsulated in alginate beads: First evidence of biological functionality.

The present communication investigates an application of alginate encapsulation technology to the differentiation of the embryonic cancer stem NTera2 cells (NT2) into dopamine-producing cells. The encapsulation of cells in polymeric beads allows their immune isolation and makes them eligible for transplantation, thus representing a promising biotech tool for the delivery of biologically active compounds to the brain. The polysaccharide alginate is one of the most commonly used material for this procedure since it is well tolerated by various tissues, including the brain. Two different initial cell concentrations (i.e. 0.5∗106/ml and 1.0∗106/ml) were tested, in order to identify which one could better reflect the homogeneous cell distribution into the alginate beads and guarantee a good cell viability at different times of culture. As evidenced, the higher number of cells promoted the formation of clusters resulting in a better interaction among encapsulated cells and the subsequent promotion of mitotic activity. The distribution of alive/dead cells into the alginate beads was verified and followed at different time points through the fluorescein diacetate/propidium iodide (FDA/PI) staining, confirming the presence of living neuronal positive cells, as determined from fluorescence microscopy imaging. The functionality of the encapsulated NT2 cells was confirmed by their dopamine production capability as assessed by UV-Vis spectrophotometric analysis and by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS). The NT2/microspheres system can be considered a groundbreaking experimental procedure, a functionally active platform, able to produce and release dopamine, and thus potentially exploitable for therapy in Parkinson's disease.

p53-Dependent PUMA to DRAM antagonistic interplay as a key molecular switch in cell-fate decision in normal/high glucose conditions.

BACKGROUND: As an important cellular stress sensor phosphoprotein p53 can trigger cell cycle arrest and apoptosis and regulate autophagy. The p53 activity mainly depends on its transactivating function, however, how p53 can select one or another biological outcome is still a matter of profound studies. Our previous findings indicate that switching cancer cells in high glucose (HG) impairs p53 apoptotic function and the transcription of target gene PUMA. METHODS AND RESULTS: Here we report that, in response to drug adriamycin (ADR) in HG, p53 efficiently induced the expression of DRAM (damage-regulated autophagy modulator), a p53 target gene and a stress-induced regulator of autophagy. We found that ADR treatment of cancer cells in HG increased autophagy, as displayed by greater LC3II accumulation and p62 degradation compared to ADR-treated cells in low glucose. The increased autophagy in HG was in part dependent on p53-induced DRAM; indeed DRAM knockdown with specific siRNA reversed the expression of the autophagic markers in HG. A similar outcome was achieved by inhibiting p53 transcriptional activity with pifithrin-α. DRAM knockdown restored the ADR-induced cell death in HG to the levels obtained in low glucose. A similar outcome was achieved by inhibition of autophagy with cloroquine (CQ) or with silencing of autophagy gene ATG5. DRAM knockdown or inhibition of autophagy were both able to re-induce PUMA transcription in response to ADR, underlining a reciprocal interplay between PUMA to DRAM to unbalance p53 apoptotic activity in HG. Xenograft tumors transplanted in normoglycemic mice displayed growth delay after ADR treatment compared to those transplanted in diabetics mice and such different in vivo response correlated with PUMA to DRAM gene expression. CONCLUSIONS: Altogether, these findings suggest that in normal/high glucose condition a mutual unbalance between p53-dependent apoptosis (PUMA) and autophagy (DRAM) gene occurred, modifying the ADR-induced cancer cell death in HG both in vitro and in vivo.

Hyperglycemia triggers HIPK2 protein degradation.

Homeodomain interacting protein kinase-2 (HIPK2) is an evolutionary conserved kinase that modulates several key molecular pathways to restrain tumor growth and induce p53-depending apoptotic cell-death in response to anticancer therapies. HIPK2 silencing in cancer cells leads to chemoresistance and cancer progression, in part due to p53 inhibition. Recently, hyperglycemia has been shown to reduce p53 phosphorylation at serine 46 (Ser46), the target residue of HIPK2, thus impairing p53 apoptotic function. Here we asked whether hyperglycemia could, upstream of p53, target HIPK2. We focused on the effect of high glucose (HG) on HIPK2 protein stability and the underlying mechanisms. We found that HG reduced HIPK2 protein levels, therefore impairing HIPK2-induced p53 apoptotic activity. HG-triggered HIPK2 protein downregulation was rescued by both proteasome inhibitor MG132 and by protein phosphatase inhibitors Calyculin A (CL-A) and Okadaic Acid (OA). Looking for the phosphatase involved, we found that protein phosphatase 2A (PP2A) induced HIPK2 degradation, as evidenced by directly activating PP2A with FTY720 or by silencing PP2A with siRNA in HG condition. The effect of PP2A on HIPK2 protein degradation could be in part due to hypoxia-inducible factor-1 (HIF-1) activity which has been previously shown to induce HIPK2 proteasomal degradation through several ubiquitin ligases. Validation analysed performed with HIF-1α dominant negative or with silencing of Siah2 ubiquitin ligase clearly showed rescue of HG-induced HIPK2 degradation. These findings demonstrate how hyperglycemia, through a complex protein cascade, induced HIPK2 downregulation and consequently impaired p53 apoptotic activity, revealing a novel link between diabetes/obesity and tumor resistance to therapies.

Cyclin D1 is a candidate oncogene in cutaneous melanoma.

The retinoblastoma pathway has been implicated in melanoma; however, previous studies of one of the key components of this pathway, cyclin D1 (CD1), failed to find amplification of this gene in a large series of melanomas. We have recently shown that a particular subtype of melanoma, acral melanoma (AM), has frequent amplification of the CD1 locus. This suggested that CD1 might be important in AM and that it may also be important in other melanoma types, even though its copy number may not be altered. We compared CD1 gene copy number and protein expression in 137 invasive primary cutaneous melanomas (71 superficial spreading melanomas, 17 nodular melanomas, 19 lentigo maligna melanomas, 18 AMs, and 12 unclassifiable melanomas) using fluorescence in situ hybridization and immunohistochemistry. We found frequent amplification of CD1 in AM (44.4%) and occasional amplification in lentigo maligna melanoma (10.5%) and superficial spreading melanoma (5.6%). CD1 protein was overexpressed in all cases with amplifications and in an additional 20% of cases without amplification. We tested the importance of CD1 in cell growth in melanoma by using adenovirus-mediated antisense treatment targeted to CD1 in two melanoma cell lines, one with and the other without CD1 amplification and overexpression. Antisense mediated down-regulation of CD1 induced apoptosis in vitro and led to significant tumor shrinkage of melanoma xenografts in severe combined immunodeficient mice. However, it did not alter the growth of normal melanocytes. Together, these results suggest that CD1 may be an oncogene in melanoma and that targeting its expression may be therapeutically beneficial.

Reactivation of mutant p53 by capsaicin, the major constituent of peppers.

BACKGROUND: Mutations in the p53 oncosuppressor gene are highly frequent in human cancers. These alterations are mainly point mutations in the DNA binding domain of p53 and disable p53 from transactivating target genes devoted to anticancer activity. Mutant p53 proteins are usually more stable than wild-type p53 and may not only impair wild-type p53 activity but also acquire pro-oncogenic functions. Therefore, targeting mutant p53 to clear the hyperstable proteins or change p53 conformation to reactivate wild-type p53 protein functions is a powerful anticancer strategy. Several small molecules have been tested for p53 reactivation in mutant p53-carrying cells while studies exploiting the effect of natural compounds are limited. Capsaicin (CPS) is the major constituent of peppers and show antitumor activity by targeting several molecular pathway, however, its effect on mutant p53 reactivation has not been assessed yet. In this study we aimed at investigating whether mutant p53 could be a new target of capsaicin-induced cell death and the underlying mechanisms. METHODS: p53 levels were analysed by western blot upon capsaicin treatment in the presence of the autophagy inhibitor chloroquine. The mutant p53 reactivation was evaluated by chromatin-immunoprecipitation (ChIP) assay and semi-quantitative RT-PCR analyses of wild-type p53 target genes. The specific wild-type p53 activation was determined by using the inhibitor of p53 transactivation function, pifithrin-α and siRNA for p53. RESULTS: Here, we show that capsaicin induced autophagy that was, at least in part, responsible of mutant p53 protein degradation. Abrogation of mutant p53 by capsaicin restored wild-type p53 activities over mutant p53 functions, contributing to cancer cell death. Similar effects were confirmed in cancer cells bearing tumor-associated p53 mutations and in H1299 (p53 null) with overexpressed p53R175H and p53R273H mutant proteins. CONCLUSION: These findings demonstrate for the first time that capsaicin may reduce mutant p53 levels and reactivate wild-type p53 protein in mutant p53-carrying cells and the p53 reactivation contributes to capsaicin-induced cell death.

Apoptosis as anticancer mechanism: function and dysfunction of its modulators and targeted therapeutic strategies.

Apoptosis is a form of programmed cell death that results in the orderly and efficient removal of damaged cells, such as those resulting from DNA damage or during development. Apoptosis can be triggered by signals from within the cell, such as genotoxic stress, or by extrinsic signals, such as the binding of ligands to cell surface death receptors. Deregulation in apoptotic cell death machinery is an hallmark of cancer. Apoptosis alteration is responsible not only for tumor development and progression but also for tumor resistance to therapies. Most anticancer drugs currently used in clinical oncology exploit the intact apoptotic signaling pathways to trigger cancer cell death. Thus, defects in the death pathways may result in drug resistance so limiting the efficacy of therapies. Therefore, a better understanding of the apoptotic cell death signaling pathways may improve the efficacy of cancer therapy and bypass resistance. This review will highlight the role of the fundamental regulators of apoptosis and how their deregulation, including activation of anti-apoptotic factors (i.e., Bcl-2, Bcl-xL, etc) or inactivation of pro-apoptotic factors (i.e., p53 pathway) ends up in cancer cell resistance to therapies. In addition, therapeutic strategies aimed at modulating apoptotic activity are briefly discussed.

A not cytotoxic nickel concentration alters the expression of neuronal differentiation markers in NT2 cells.

Nickel, a known occupational/environmental hazard, may cross the placenta and reach appreciable concentrations in various fetal organs, including the brain. The aim of this study was to investigate whether nickel interferes with the process of neuronal differentiation. Following a 4 week treatment with retinoic acid (10µM), the human teratocarcinoma-derived NTera2/D1 cell line (NT2 cells) terminally differentiate into neurons which recapitulate many features of human fetal neurons. The continuous exposure of the differentiating NT2 cells to a not cytotoxic nickel concentration (10µM) increased the expression of specific neuronal differentiation markers such as neural cell adhesion molecule (NCAM) and microtubule associated protein 2 (MAP2). Furthermore, nickel exposure increased the expression of hypoxia-inducible-factor-1α (HIF-1α) and induced the activation of the AKT/PKB kinase pathway, as shown by the increase of P(Ser-9)-GSK-3ß, the inactive form of glycogen synthase kinase-3ß (GSK-3ß). Intriguingly, by the end of the fourth week the expression of tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) protein, a marker of dopaminergic neurons, was lower in nickel-treated than in control cultures. Thus, likely by partially mimicking hypoxic conditions, a not-cytotoxic nickel concentration appears to alter the process of neuronal differentiation and hinder the expression of the dopaminergic neuronal phenotype. Taken together, these results suggest that nickel, by altering normal brain development, may increase susceptibility to neuro-psychopathology later in life.

Effects of acetaminophen on constitutive and inducible prostanoid biosynthesis in human blood cells.

1. Acetaminophen, an analgesic and antipyretic drug with weak antiinflammatory properties, has been suggested to act as a tissue-selective inhibitor of prostaglandin H synthases (PGHSs) (e.g. COX-1 and COX-2) through its reducing activity, that is influenced by the different cellular levels of peroxides. 2. We have studied the effects of acetaminophen on inducible and constitutive prostanoid biosynthesis in monocytes and platelets in vitro. To discriminate between the inhibitory effect of the drug on PGHS-isozymes vs PGE-synthases (PGESs), parallel measurements of PGE(2) and thromboxane (TX) B(2) were carried out. Since antioxidant enzymes and cofactors, present in plasma, may affect acetaminophen-dependent inhibition of prostanoids, comparative experiments in whole blood vs isolated monocytes were performed. 3. Acetaminophen inhibited LPS-induced whole blood PGE(2) and TXB(2) production, in a concentration-dependent fashion [IC(50) microM (95% confidence intervals): 44 (27-70) and 94 (79-112), respectively]. Therapeutic plasma concentrations (100 and 300 microM) of the drug more profoundly reduced PGE(2) than TXB(2) (71 +/- 3 vs 54 +/- 4 and 95 +/- 0.8 vs 78 +/- 2%, respectively, mean +/- s.e.mean, n = 6, P < 0.01). 4. Differently, in isolated monocytes stimulated with LPS, both PGE(2) and TXB(2) production was maximally reduced by only 60%. 5 At 100 and 300 microM, the drug caused a similar and incomplete inhibition of platelet PGE(2) and TXB(2) production during whole blood clotting (45 +/- 4 vs 54 +/- 4 and 75 +/- 2 vs 75 +/- 1%, respectively, mean +/- s.e.mean, n = 4). 6 In conclusion, therapeutic concentrations of acetaminophen caused an incomplete inhibition of platelet COX-1 and monocyte COX-2 but in the presence of plasma, the drug almost completely suppressed inducible PGE(2) biosynthesis through its inhibitory effects on both COX-2 and inducible PGES.

Divergent modulation of neuronal differentiation by caspase-2 and -9.

Human Ntera2/cl.D1 (NT2) cells treated with retinoic acid (RA) differentiate towards a well characterized neuronal phenotype sharing many features with human fetal neurons. In view of the emerging role of caspases in murine stem cell/neural precursor differentiation, caspases activity was evaluated during RA differentiation. Caspase-2, -3 and -9 activity was transiently and selectively increased in differentiating and non-apoptotic NT2-cells. SiRNA-mediated selective silencing of either caspase-2 (si-Casp2) or -9 (si-Casp9) was implemented in order to dissect the role of distinct caspases. The RA-induced expression of neuronal markers, i.e. neural cell adhesion molecule (NCAM), microtubule associated protein-2 (MAP2) and tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) mRNAs and proteins, was decreased in si-Casp9, but markedly increased in si-Casp2 cells. During RA-induced NT2 differentiation, the class III histone deacetylase Sirt1, a putative caspase substrate implicated in the regulation of the proneural bHLH MASH1 gene expression, was cleaved to a ∼100 kDa fragment. Sirt1 cleavage was markedly reduced in si-Casp9 cells, even though caspase-3 was normally activated, but was not affected (still cleaved) in si-Casp2 cells, despite a marked reduction of caspase-3 activity. The expression of MASH1 mRNA was higher and occurred earlier in si-Casp2 cells, while was reduced at early time points during differentiation in si-Casp9 cells. Thus, caspase-2 and -9 may perform opposite functions during RA-induced NT2 neuronal differentiation. While caspase-9 activation is relevant for proper neuronal differentiation, likely through the fine tuning of Sirt1 function, caspase-2 activation appears to hinder the RA-induced neuronal differentiation of NT2 cells.