Research Review: Child emotion regulation mediates the association between family factors and internalizing symptoms in children and adolescents - a meta-analysis.

BACKGROUND: Parental influence on children's internalizing symptoms has been well established; however, little is known about the underlying mechanisms. One possible mechanism is child emotion regulation given evidence (a) of its associations with internalizing symptoms and (b) that the development of emotion regulation during childhood and adolescence is influenced by aspects of the family environment. This meta-analysis aimed to systematically investigate the mediating role of child emotion regulation in the relationship between various family factors and internalizing symptoms in children and adolescents. METHODS: We searched Medline, Embase, PsychInfo, and Web of Science for English articles up until November 2022. We included studies that examined child emotion regulation as a mediator between a family factor and child/adolescent internalizing symptoms. Random-effects models were used to calculate pooled indirect effects and total effects for nine family factors. Heterogeneity and mediation ratio were also calculated. RESULTS: Of 49 studies with 24,524 participants in this meta-analysis, family factors for which emotion regulation mediated the association with child/adolescent internalizing symptoms included: unsupportive emotion socialization, psychological control, secure attachment, aversiveness, family conflict, parent emotion regulation and parent psychopathology, but not supportive emotion socialization and behavioral control. CONCLUSIONS: Various family factors impact children's emotion regulation development, and in turn, contribute to the risk of internalizing symptoms in young people. Findings from this study highlight the need for interventions targeting modifiable parenting behaviors to promote healthy emotion regulation and better mental health in children and adolescents.

Family and parenting factors are associated with emotion regulation neural function in early adolescent girls with elevated internalizing symptoms.

A prominent tripartite model proposes that parent role modeling of emotion regulation, emotion socialization behaviors, and the emotional climate of the family are important for young people's emotional development. However, limited research has examined the neural mechanisms at play. Here, we examined the associations between family and parenting factors, the neural correlates of emotional reactivity and regulation, and internalizing symptoms in early adolescent girls. Sixty-four female adolescents aged 10-12 years with elevated internalizing symptoms completed emotional reactivity, implicit (affect labeling) and explicit (cognitive reappraisal) emotion regulation tasks during functional magnetic resonance imaging. Positive family emotional climate was associated with greater activation in the anterior cingulate and middle temporal cortices during emotional reactivity. Maternal emotion regulation difficulties were associated with increased frontal pole and supramarginal gyrus activation during affect labeling, whereas supportive maternal emotion socialization and positive family emotional climate were associated with activation in prefrontal regions, including inferior frontal and superior frontal gyri, respectively, during cognitive reappraisal. No mediating effects of brain function were observed in the associations between family/parenting factors and adolescent symptoms. These findings highlight the role of family and parenting behaviors in adolescent emotion regulation neurobiology, and contribute to prominent models of adolescent emotional development.

ENIGMA HALFpipe: Interactive, reproducible, and efficient analysis for resting-state and task-based fMRI data.

The reproducibility crisis in neuroimaging has led to an increased demand for standardized data processing workflows. Within the ENIGMA consortium, we developed HALFpipe (Harmonized Analysis of Functional MRI pipeline), an open-source, containerized, user-friendly tool that facilitates reproducible analysis of task-based and resting-state fMRI data through uniform application of preprocessing, quality assessment, single-subject feature extraction, and group-level statistics. It provides state-of-the-art preprocessing using fMRIPrep without the requirement for input data in Brain Imaging Data Structure (BIDS) format. HALFpipe extends the functionality of fMRIPrep with additional preprocessing steps, which include spatial smoothing, grand mean scaling, temporal filtering, and confound regression. HALFpipe generates an interactive quality assessment (QA) webpage to rate the quality of key preprocessing outputs and raw data in general. HALFpipe features myriad post-processing functions at the individual subject level, including calculation of task-based activation, seed-based connectivity, network-template (or dual) regression, atlas-based functional connectivity matrices, regional homogeneity (ReHo), and fractional amplitude of low-frequency fluctuations (fALFF), offering support to evaluate a combinatorial number of features or preprocessing settings in one run. Finally, flexible factorial models can be defined for mixed-effects regression analysis at the group level, including multiple comparison correction. Here, we introduce the theoretical framework in which HALFpipe was developed, and present an overview of the main functions of the pipeline. HALFpipe offers the scientific community a major advance toward addressing the reproducibility crisis in neuroimaging, providing a workflow that encompasses preprocessing, post-processing, and QA of fMRI data, while broadening core principles of data analysis for producing reproducible results. Instructions and code can be found at https://github.com/HALFpipe/HALFpipe.

Subcortical shape alterations in major depressive disorder: Findings from the ENIGMA major depressive disorder working group.

Alterations in regional subcortical brain volumes have been investigated as part of the efforts of an international consortium, ENIGMA, to identify reliable neural correlates of major depressive disorder (MDD). Given that subcortical structures are comprised of distinct subfields, we sought to build significantly from prior work by precisely mapping localized MDD-related differences in subcortical regions using shape analysis. In this meta-analysis of subcortical shape from the ENIGMA-MDD working group, we compared 1,781 patients with MDD and 2,953 healthy controls (CTL) on individual measures of shape metrics (thickness and surface area) on the surface of seven bilateral subcortical structures: nucleus accumbens, amygdala, caudate, hippocampus, pallidum, putamen, and thalamus. Harmonized data processing and statistical analyses were conducted locally at each site, and findings were aggregated by meta-analysis. Relative to CTL, patients with adolescent-onset MDD (≤ 21 years) had lower thickness and surface area of the subiculum, cornu ammonis (CA) 1 of the hippocampus and basolateral amygdala (Cohen's d = -0.164 to -0.180). Relative to first-episode MDD, recurrent MDD patients had lower thickness and surface area in the CA1 of the hippocampus and the basolateral amygdala (Cohen's d = -0.173 to -0.184). Our results suggest that previously reported MDD-associated volumetric differences may be localized to specific subfields of these structures that have been shown to be sensitive to the effects of stress, with important implications for mapping treatments to patients based on specific neural targets and key clinical features.

Individual differences in brain structure and self-reported empathy in children.

Empathy refers to the understanding and sharing of others' emotions and comprises cognitive and affective components. Empathy is important for social functioning, and alterations in empathy have been demonstrated in many developmental or psychiatric disorders. While several studies have examined associations between empathy and brain structure in adults, few have investigated this relationship in children. Investigating associations between empathy and brain structure during childhood will help us to develop a deeper understanding of the neural correlates of empathy across the lifespan. A total of 125 children (66 females, mean age 10 years) underwent magnetic resonance imaging brain scans. Grey matter volume and cortical thickness from structural images were examined using the Computational Anatomy Toolbox (CAT12) within Statistical Parametric Mapping (SPM12) software. Children completed questionnaire measures of empathy (cognitive empathy, affective empathy: affective sharing, empathic concern, and empathic distress). In hypothesised region of interest analyses, individual differences in affective and cognitive empathy were related to grey matter volume in the insula and the precuneus. Although these relationships were of similar strength to those found in previous research, they did not survive correction for the total number of models computed. While no significant findings were detected between grey matter volume and empathy in exploratory whole-brain analysis, associations were found between cortical thickness and empathic concern in the right precentral gyrus. This study provides preliminary evidence that individual differences in self-reported empathy in children may be related to aspects of brain structure. Findings highlight the need for more research investigating the neurobiological correlates of empathy in children.

Structural Brain Development and Aggression: A Longitudinal Study in Late Childhood.

This longitudinal study examined the neurodevelopmental correlates of aggression in children, focusing on structural brain properties. A community sample of 110 (60 females) children participated at age 8 years and again at age 10 years. Brain structure was assessed by using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and parents reported on child aggression using the Child Behavior Checklist. Analyses examined the relationship between aggression and development of volume of subcortical regions, cortical thickness, and subcortical-cortical structural coupling. Females with relatively high aggression exhibited reduced right hippocampal growth over time. Across males and females, aggression was associated with amygdala- and hippocampal-cortical developmental coupling, with findings for amygdala-cortical coupling potentially indicating reduced top-down prefrontal control of the amygdala in those with increasing aggression over time. Findings suggest that aggressive behaviors may be associated with alterations in normative brain development; however, results were not corrected for multiple comparisons and should be interpreted with caution.

Pubertal hormones predict sex-specific trajectories of pituitary gland volume during the transition from childhood to adolescence.

Pituitary gland volume (PGV) increases during childhood and adolescence in a sex-specific manner, and previous research suggests that puberty may be associated with PGV development. However, existing research to date has focused on sex hormones associated with gonadarche. Given the role of the pituitary gland in hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis function, the present study investigated associations between PGV development and HPA hormones that play a role in the earlier pubertal phase of adrenarche. Participants were a community sample of 249 children and early adolescents who participated in longitudinal brain imaging and pubertal assessments. Each participant provided data at one or two waves 1.5-3 years apart, resulting in 409 datasets that covered the age range 8-13 years. PGV was estimated from T1-weighted Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) scans, and dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA), its sulfate (DHEA-S) and testosterone were measured from saliva. Estradiol was measured for a subset of females. Parents reported on physical pubertal development. Linear mixed modeling was used to investigate associations between age, pubertal measures and PGV development. DHEA, DHEA-S and testosterone (in addition to physical maturation) explained variance in PGV development over and above age, and in a sex-dependent fashion. In all cases, associations were stronger, or only present in females. Estradiol was associated with PGV in females, but this did not appear to account for adrenarcheal hormone effects. Our findings suggest a key role for the hormones of adrenarche, the first biochemical phase of puberty, in PGV development. Further research is required to understand the sex-specific role of adrenarcheal and gonadarcheal hormones on the PGV across development.

Biological therapy in pediatric age.

Biological therapies, especially blocking tumor necrosis factor-α (TNFα) agents have radically changed the therapeutic approach and disease course of pediatric inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). In particular, drugs such as infliximab (IFX) and adalimumab (ADA) have been demonstrated to be effective in inducing and maintaining corticosteroid-free remission in both adult and pediatric patients with Crohns Disease (CD) and Ulcerative colitis (UC). Biosimilar biological (BioS) therapy is increasingly being used in pediatric age even though most knowledge on the safety and efficacy of these agents is based on IFX in adult IBD data. Studies show high rates of clinical response and remission in both IFX naïve patients and in patients switched from originator to BioS with similar risks of adverse events (AEs) as those reported with IFX originator. In the present review indications, efficacy and AEs of biological therapy in pediatric IBD will be discussed, as well as the role of other biological agents such as Golimumab, Vedolizumab and Ustekinumab, the role of BioS biological therapy and utility of therapeutic drug monitoring in clinical practice.

Interaction between hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis genetic variation and maternal behavior in the prediction of amygdala connectivity in children.

High levels of negative, and low levels of positive parenting behaviors can increase the risk of internalizing symptoms in children, but the mechanisms underlying this association are still unclear. One possibility is that parenting behaviors affect the neural correlates of emotion processing in children. Further, genetic variants relevant to the function of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis are thought to moderate the effect of early experiences on the brain circuits underlying emotion processing, particularly those involving the amygdala. However, no studies have investigated the interactive effect of parenting behaviors and HPA axis-related genes on amygdala activity and connectivity during emotion processing, and in turn internalizing symptoms in children. Participants comprised 80 children (46 females, mean age = 10.0 years) from the community. Observational measures of maternal behavior were collected during mother-child interactions. Children underwent functional magnetic resonance imaging while performing an implicit emotion-processing task, and mothers and children completed measures of child internalizing symptoms. Genetic risk was calculated using an HPA genetic risk score. HPA genetic risk score was indirectly associated with greater child self-reported depressive symptoms via increased amygdala-precuneus connectivity during the emotion-processing task, and interacted with negative maternal parenting behavior to predict increased connectivity between amygdala and superior frontal gyrus, anterior cingulate cortex and parietal cortex. HPA-related genetic variation appears to moderate the effect of negative maternal parenting behavior on the neural underpinnings of emotion processing in children, and may confer risk for depressive symptoms via modulation of amygdala connectivity.

Adverse childhood experiences and gender influence treatment seeking behaviors in obsessive-compulsive disorder.

BACKGROUND: Exposure to adverse childhood experiences (ACE) increases the risk of adult physical and mental health disorders, including obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), and influences adult brain structure and function. ACE could influence the use of psychotropic drugs in adulthood, and treatment seeking behaviors. METHODS: We assessed the severity of ACE in a sample of 31 healthy controls and 66 patients with OCD who were consecutively referred for hospitalization and were either drug-naïve or drug-treated. In addition, we explored the possible clinical relevance of ACE with two additional analyses: (a) a discriminant function analysis with sex and ACE as factors, and (b) a logistic regression with use of medication as dependent variable and ACE as factor. RESULTS: Despite comparable age, years at school, age at onset of illness, duration of illness, and severity of illness (Y-BOCS), adult drug-naïve patients reported lower exposure to ACE and later contacts with mental health professionals than drug-treated. This effect was particularly evident in female patients compared to males. CONCLUSIONS: The interaction of gender with factors linked with the early familial environment biased access to psychiatric care and use of medication, independent of OCD-associated factors such as severity of symptoms or duration of illness. The need for medications of patients could be higher in families where OCD symptomatology is associated with ACE.

Investigating Associations Between Maternal Behavior and the Development of Functional Connectivity During the Transition From Late Childhood to Early Adolescence.

BACKGROUND: Parenting behavior is thought to affect child brain development, with implications for mental health. However, longitudinal studies that use whole-brain approaches are lacking. In this study, we investigated associations between parenting behavior, age-related changes in whole-brain functional connectivity, and psychopathology symptoms in children and adolescents. METHODS: Two hundred forty (126 female) children underwent resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging at up to two time points, providing a total of 398 scans covering the age range 8 to 13 years. Parenting behavior was self-reported at baseline. Parenting factors (positive parenting, inattentive parenting, and harsh and inconsistent discipline) were identified based on a factor analysis of self-report parenting questionnaires. Longitudinal measures of child internalizing and externalizing symptoms were collected. Network-based R-statistics was used to identify associations between parenting and age-related changes in functional connectivity. RESULTS: Higher maternal inattentive behavior was associated with lower decreases in connectivity over time, particularly between regions of the ventral attention and default mode networks and frontoparietal and default mode networks. However, this association was not significant after strict correction for multiple comparisons. CONCLUSIONS: While results should be considered preliminary, they suggest that inattentive parenting may be associated with a reduction in the normative pattern of increased network specialization that occurs with age. This may reflect a delayed development of functional connectivity.

Duodenal stenosis, an unusual presentation of eosinophilic gastroenteritis: a case report.

Eosinophilic gastrointestinal diseases (EGIDs) are rare, chronic inflammatory disorders characterized by eosinophilic infiltration of the gastrointestinal tract. Symptoms and clinical presentations vary depending on the site and layer of the gastrointestinal wall infiltrated by eosinophils. Gastrointestinal obstruction is a serious, though uncommon, presentation. Management can be extremely challenging because of the rarity of the condition and the lack of robust scientific evidence. Current treatment approaches for EGIDs mainly focus on elimination diets, proton pump inhibitors and corticosteroids, which present high refractoriness rates. Novel targeted therapies are being investigated but not routinely used. Surgery should be avoided as far as possible; however, it may be the only option in gastrointestinal obstruction when long-term remission cannot be attained by any medical strategy. Herein we report the case of an adolescent boy affected by an eosinophilic gastrointestinal disease with progressive duodenal stenosis, refractory to medical therapy, who successfully benefitted from surgical management. He presented with a one-year history of gastrointestinal obstructive symptoms with feeding intolerance. After the diagnostic workup, he was diagnosed with an eosinophilic gastrointestinal disease (esophagitis and enteritis) with a duodenal involvement causing a progressive duodenal stenosis. Due to refractoriness to the conventional medical therapies and the consequent high impact on his quality of life, related both to the need for enteral nutrition and repeated hospitalizations, we decided to perform a gastro-jejunum anastomosis, which allowed us to obtain a clinical and endoscopic long-term remission. The early discussion of the case and the involvement of all experienced specialists, pediatricians and pediatric surgeons is essential.

Multi-site benchmark classification of major depressive disorder using machine learning on cortical and subcortical measures.

Machine learning (ML) techniques have gained popularity in the neuroimaging field due to their potential for classifying neuropsychiatric disorders. However, the diagnostic predictive power of the existing algorithms has been limited by small sample sizes, lack of representativeness, data leakage, and/or overfitting. Here, we overcome these limitations with the largest multi-site sample size to date (N = 5365) to provide a generalizable ML classification benchmark of major depressive disorder (MDD) using shallow linear and non-linear models. Leveraging brain measures from standardized ENIGMA analysis pipelines in FreeSurfer, we were able to classify MDD versus healthy controls (HC) with a balanced accuracy of around 62%. But after harmonizing the data, e.g., using ComBat, the balanced accuracy dropped to approximately 52%. Accuracy results close to random chance levels were also observed in stratified groups according to age of onset, antidepressant use, number of episodes and sex. Future studies incorporating higher dimensional brain imaging/phenotype features, and/or using more advanced machine and deep learning methods may yield more encouraging prospects.

Diagnostic Delay of Celiac Disease in Childhood.

Importance: The extent and factors associated with risk of diagnostic delay in pediatric celiac disease (CD) are poorly understood. Objectives: To investigate the diagnostic delay of CD in childhood, and to assess factors associated with this delay. Design, Setting, and Participants: Multicenter, retrospective, cross-sectional study (2010-2019) of pediatric (aged 0-18 years) patients with CD from 13 pediatric tertiary referral centers in Italy. Data were analyzed from January to June 2023. Main Outcomes and Measures: The overall diagnostic delay (ie, the time lapse occurring from the first symptoms or clinical data indicative of CD and the definitive diagnosis), further split into preconsultation and postconsultation diagnostic delay, were described. Univariable and multivariable linear regression models for factors associated with diagnostic delay were fitted. Factors associated with extreme diagnostic delay (ie, 1.5 × 75th percentile) and misdiagnosis were assessed. Results: A total of 3171 patients with CD were included. The mean (SD) age was 6.2 (3.9) years; 2010 patients (63.4%) were female; and 10 patients (0.3%) were Asian, 41 (1.3%) were Northern African, and 3115 (98.3%) were White. The median (IQR) overall diagnostic delay was 5 (2-11) months, and preconsultation and postconsultation diagnostic delay were 2 (0-6) months and 1 (0-3) month, respectively. The median (IQR) extreme overall diagnostic delay (586 cases [18.5%]) was 11 (5-131) months, and the preconsultation and postconsultation delays were 6 (2-120) and 3 (1-131) months, respectively. Patients who had a first diagnosis when aged less than 3 years (650 patients [20.5%]) showed a shorter diagnostic delay, both overall (median [IQR], 4 [1-7] months for patients aged less than 3 years vs 5 [2-12] months for others) and postconsultation (median [IQR], 1 [0-2] month for patients aged less than 3 years vs 2 [0-4] months for others). A shorter delay was registered in male patients, both overall (median [IQR], 4 [1-10] months for male patients vs 5 [2-12] months for female patients) and preconsultation (median [IQR], 1 [0-6] month for male patients vs 2 [0-6] months for female patients). Family history of CD was associated with lower preconsultation delay (odds ratio [OR], 0.59; 95% CI, 0.47-0.74) and lower overall extreme diagnostic delay (OR, 0.75; 95% CI, 0.56-0.99). Neurological symptoms (78 patients [21.5%]; OR, 1.35; 95% CI, 1.03-1.78), gastroesophageal reflux (9 patients [28.1%]; OR, 1.87; 95% CI, 1.02-3.42), and failure to thrive (215 patients [22.6%]; OR, 1.62; 95% CI, 1.31-2.00) showed a more frequent extreme diagnostic delay. A previous misdiagnosis (124 patients [4.0%]) was more frequently associated with gastroesophageal reflux disease, diarrhea, bloating, abdominal pain, constipation, fatigue, osteopenia, and villous atrophy (Marsh 3 classification). Conclusions and Relevance: In this cross-sectional study of pediatric CD, the diagnostic delay was rather short. Some factors associated with risk for longer diagnostic delay and misdiagnosis emerged, and these should be addressed in future studies.

Concurrent validity and reliability of suicide risk assessment instruments: A meta-analysis of 20 instruments across 27 international cohorts.

OBJECTIVE: A major limitation of current suicide research is the lack of power to identify robust correlates of suicidal thoughts or behavior. Variation in suicide risk assessment instruments used across cohorts may represent a limitation to pooling data in international consortia. METHOD: Here, we examine this issue through two approaches: (a) an extensive literature search on the reliability and concurrent validity of the most commonly used instruments and (b) by pooling data (N ∼ 6,000 participants) from cohorts from the Enhancing NeuroImaging Genetics Through Meta-Analysis (ENIGMA) Major Depressive Disorder and ENIGMA-Suicidal Thoughts and Behaviour working groups, to assess the concurrent validity of instruments currently used for assessing suicidal thoughts or behavior. RESULTS: We observed moderate-to-high correlations between measures, consistent with the wide range (κ range: 0.15-0.97; r range: 0.21-0.94) reported in the literature. Two common multi-item instruments, the Columbia Suicide Severity Rating Scale and the Beck Scale for Suicidal Ideation were highly correlated with each other (r = 0.83). Sensitivity analyses identified sources of heterogeneity such as the time frame of the instrument and whether it relies on self-report or a clinical interview. Finally, construct-specific analyses suggest that suicide ideation items from common psychiatric questionnaires are most concordant with the suicide ideation construct of multi-item instruments. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings suggest that multi-item instruments provide valuable information on different aspects of suicidal thoughts or behavior but share a modest core factor with single suicidal ideation items. Retrospective, multisite collaborations including distinct instruments should be feasible provided they harmonize across instruments or focus on specific constructs of suicidality. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Caudate gray matter volume in obsessive-compulsive disorder is influenced by adverse childhood experiences and ongoing drug treatment.

BACKGROUND: Exposure to adverse childhood experiences (ACE) increases the risk of adult physical and mental health disorders, including obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), and influences adult cortical neural responses and gray matter (GM) volumes. Robust neuroimaging findings associated OCD with corticostriatal dysfunction and with abnormal morphology and metabolism of cortical areas and basal ganglia. METHODS: We explored the GM correlates of ACE in 40 patients with OCD (15 drug-naive and 25 drug-treated patients) with magnetic resonance imaging voxel-based morphometry at 3.0 T. Regional GM volumes were the dependent variable, and drug treatment (naive vs treated) and breadth of exposure to ACE (high vs low) were the factors of interest. Sex, duration of illness, and handedness were considered as nuisance covariates. Whole brain statistical threshold was P < 0.05 familywise error corrected for multiple comparisons. RESULTS: Patients with higher levels of exposure to ACE showed increased GM volume in the head of the left caudate nucleus. Ongoing drug treatment was associated with reduced GM volume in the same area. Earlier age at onset of OCD, need for medication treatment, and mixed handedness were correlated with higher levels of ACE. CONCLUSIONS: Exposure to ACE increased, and ongoing drug treatment decreased, caudate GM in OCD. Increased volume and metabolism of the caudate nucleus have been consistently associated with OCD. Our findings suggest a detrimental effect of ACE on the brain underpinnings of OCD, with an opposite effect of medications.

Atrioventricular Block in Celiac Disease: An Unusual Clinical Presentation in a Child. A Case-Based Review.

Congenital or acquired atrioventricular block (AVB) is a rare disorder in the pediatric population, while celiac disease (CeD) is a common multisystemic autoimmune disorder that is characterized by intestinal manifestations as they are the typical clinical presentation. Sometimes CeD presents more complex multisystemic involvement which includes the heart. Cardiac involvement, such as dilated cardiomyopathy, myocarditis or conduction disease, have been mainly described in untreated adult patients with or without gastro-intestinal symptoms; rare cases of AVB and CeD have been also reported, particularly in association with extra-cardiac manifestations. We describe a case of a progressive acquired AVB block in a 4-year-old child, in which CeD was later diagnosed. A rapid and significantly improvement of the AVB grade has been obtained after the child started a strict gluten-free diet, and so we suggest including diagnostic exams for CeD in all of the children with acquired AVB.

Harsh and Inconsistent Parental Discipline Is Associated With Altered Cortical Development in Children.

BACKGROUND: A growing body of evidence suggests that parenting behaviors may affect child mental health via altering brain development. There is a scarcity of research, however, that has investigated associations between parenting behavior and brain structure using longitudinal magnetic resonance imaging. This study aimed to investigate associations between parenting behaviors and structural brain development across the transition from childhood to adolescence. METHODS: Participants were 246 children who provided 436 magnetic resonance imaging datasets covering the age range from 8 to 13 years. Parents (94% mothers) completed self-report measures of parenting behavior, and both children and parents reported on child mental health. Factor analysis was used to identify dimensions of parental behavior. Linear mixed-effects models investigated associations between parenting behaviors and age-related change in cortical thickness and surface area and subcortical volume. Mediation models tested whether brain changes mediated associations between parenting behaviors and changes in internalizing/externalizing symptoms. RESULTS: Hypothesized associations between parenting and amygdala, hippocampal, and frontal trajectories were not supported. Rather, higher levels of parent harsh/inconsistent discipline were associated with decreases in surface area in medial parietal and temporal pole regions and reduced cortical thinning in medial parietal regions. Some effects were present in female but not male children. There were no associations between these neurodevelopmental alterations and symptoms. CONCLUSIONS: This study provides insight into the links between parenting behavior and child neurodevelopment. Given the functions of implicated regions, findings may suggest that parental harsh/inconsistent discipline affects the development of neural circuits subserving sensorimotor and social functioning in children.

Maternal warmth is associated with network segregation across late childhood: A longitudinal neuroimaging study.

The negative impact of adverse experiences in childhood on neurodevelopment is well documented. Less attention however has been given to the impact of variations in "normative" parenting behaviors. The influence of these parenting behaviors is likely to be marked during periods of rapid brain reorganization, such as late childhood. The aim of the current study was to investigate associations between normative parenting behaviors and the development of structural brain networks across late childhood. Data were collected from a longitudinal sample of 114 mother-child dyads (54% female children, M age 8.41 years, SD = 0.32 years), recruited from low socioeconomic areas of Melbourne, Australia. At the first assessment parenting behaviors were coded from two lab-based interaction tasks and structural magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scans of the children were performed. At the second assessment, approximately 18 months later (M age 9.97 years, SD = 0.37 years) MRI scans were repeated. Cortical thickness (CT) was extracted from T1-weighted images using FreeSurfer. Structural covariance (SC) networks were constructed from partial correlations of CT estimates between brain regions and estimates of network efficiency and modularity were obtained for each time point. The change in these network measures, from Time 1 to Time 2, was also calculated. At Time 2, less positive maternal affective behavior was associated with higher modularity (more segregated networks), while negative maternal affective behavior was not related. No support was found for an association between local or global efficacy and maternal affective behaviors at Time 2. Similarly, no support was demonstrated for associations between maternal affective behaviors and change in network efficiency and modularity, from Time 1 to Time 2. These results indicate that normative variations in parenting may influence the development of structural brain networks in late childhood and extend current knowledge about environmental influences on structural connectivity in a developmental context.

The role of educational attainment and brain morphology in major depressive disorder: Findings from the ENIGMA major depressive disorder consortium.

Brain structural abnormalities and low educational attainment are consistently associated with major depressive disorder (MDD), yet there has been little research investigating the complex interaction of these factors. Brain structural alterations may represent a vulnerability or differential susceptibility marker, and in the context of low educational attainment, predict MDD. We tested this moderation model in a large multisite sample of 1958 adults with MDD and 2921 controls (aged 18 to 86) from the ENIGMA MDD working group. Using generalized linear mixed models and within-sample split-half replication, we tested whether brain structure interacted with educational attainment to predict MDD status. Analyses revealed that cortical thickness in a number of occipital, parietal, and frontal regions significantly interacted with education to predict MDD. For the majority of regions, models suggested a differential susceptibility effect, whereby thicker cortex was more likely to predict MDD in individuals with low educational attainment, but less likely to predict MDD in individuals with high educational attainment. Findings suggest that greater thickness of brain regions subserving visuomotor and social-cognitive functions confers susceptibility to MDD, dependent on level of educational attainment. Longitudinal work, however, is ultimately needed to establish whether cortical thickness represents a preexisting susceptibility marker. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).