Deciphering the mechanisms of cellular uptake of engineered nanoparticles by accurate evaluation of internalization using imaging flow cytometry.

BACKGROUND: The uptake of nanoparticles (NPs) by cells remains to be better characterized in order to understand the mechanisms of potential NP toxicity as well as for a reliable risk assessment. Real NP uptake is still difficult to evaluate because of the adsorption of NPs on the cellular surface. RESULTS: Here we used two approaches to distinguish adsorbed fluorescently labeled NPs from the internalized ones. The extracellular fluorescence was either quenched by Trypan Blue or the uptake was analyzed using imaging flow cytometry. We used this novel technique to define the inside of the cell to accurately study the uptake of fluorescently labeled (SiO2) and even non fluorescent but light diffracting NPs (TiO2). Time course, dose-dependence as well as the influence of surface charges on the uptake were shown in the pulmonary epithelial cell line NCI-H292. By setting up an integrative approach combining these flow cytometric analyses with confocal microscopy we deciphered the endocytic pathway involved in SiO2 NP uptake. Functional studies using energy depletion, pharmacological inhibitors, siRNA-clathrin heavy chain induced gene silencing and colocalization of NPs with proteins specific for different endocytic vesicles allowed us to determine macropinocytosis as the internalization pathway for SiO2 NPs in NCI-H292 cells. CONCLUSION: The integrative approach we propose here using the innovative imaging flow cytometry combined with confocal microscopy could be used to identify the physico-chemical characteristics of NPs involved in their uptake in view to redesign safe NPs.

Calcium signalling induced by in vitro exposure to silicium dioxide nanoparticles in rat pulmonary artery smooth muscle cells.

The development and use of nanomaterials, especially engineered nanoparticles (NP), is expected to provide many benefits. But at the same time the development of such materials is also feared because of their potential human health risks. Indeed, NP display some characteristics similar to ultrafine environmental particles which are known to exert deleterious cardiovascular effects including pro-hypertensive ones. In this context, the effect of NP on calcium signalling, whose deregulation is often involved in hypertensive diseases, remain poorly described. We thus assessed the effect of SiO2 NP on calcium signalling by fluorescence imaging and on the proliferation response in rat pulmonary artery smooth muscle cells (PASMC). In PASMC, acute exposure to SiO2 NP, from 1 to 500µg/mL, produced an increase of the [Ca2+]i. In addition, when PASMC were exposed to NP at 200µg/mL, a proliferative response was observed. This calcium increase was even greater in PASMC isolated from rats suffering from pulmonary hypertension. The absence of extracellular calcium, addition of diltiazem or nicardipine (L-type voltage-operated calcium channel inhibitors both used at 10µM), and addition of capsazepine or HC067047 (TRPV1 and TRPV4 inhibitors used at 10µM and 5µM, respectively) significantly reduced this response. Moreover, this response was also inhibited by thapsigargin (SERCA inhibitor, 1µM), ryanodine (100µM) and dantrolene (ryanodine receptor antagonists, 10µM) but not by xestospongin C (IP3 receptor antagonist, 10µM). Thus, NP induce an intracellular calcium rise in rat PASMC originating from both extracellular and intracellular calcium sources. This study also provides evidence for the implication of TRPV channels in NP induced calcium rise that may highlight the role of these channels in the deleterious cardiovascular effects of NP.

Quaternary ammonium groups exposed at the surface of silica nanoparticles suitable for DNA complexation in the presence of cationic lipids.

The production of silica nanoparticles (NPs) exposing quaternary ammonium groups (NPQ(+)) has been achieved using an optimized chemical surface functionalization protocol. The procedures of surface modification and quaternization of amino groups were validated by diffuse reflectance infrared Fourier transform (DRIFT) and (1)H NMR spectroscopies. Compared to nonquaternized aminated NP, the colloidal stability of NPQ(+) was improved for various pH and salt conditions as assessed by ζ potential and light scattering measurements. In the context of their use for nucleic acid delivery, DNA efficiently bound to NPQ(+) analyzed by cosedimentation assays for a large pH range and various NaCl concentrations and exhibited a better efficacy at basic pH than nonquaternized NP. The study of NPQ(+)/DNA/cationic lipids ternary complexes was carried out with 1,2-dioleoyl-3-trimethylammonium propane (DOTAP) and analyzed by cryo-electron microscopy (cryo-EM). Cryo-EM images showed ternary assemblies where condensed DNA strands are sandwiched between the NPQ(+) surface and the cationic lipid bilayer. Because of an unusual electrostatic colloidal stability of NPQ(+) and a high propensity to bind DNA molecules particularly at high salt concentrations, a novel type of ternary assembly has been formed that might impact the delivery properties of these complexes including their stability in biological environment.