High-resolution cryo-electron microscopy structure of photosystem II from the mesophilic cyanobacterium, Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803.

Photosystem II (PSII) enables global-scale, light-driven water oxidation. Genetic manipulation of PSII from the mesophilic cyanobacterium Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803 has provided insights into the mechanism of water oxidation; however, the lack of a high-resolution structure of oxygen-evolving PSII from this organism has limited the interpretation of biophysical data to models based on structures of thermophilic cyanobacterial PSII. Here, we report the cryo-electron microscopy structure of PSII from Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803 at 1.93-Å resolution. A number of differences are observed relative to thermophilic PSII structures, including the following: the extrinsic subunit PsbQ is maintained, the C terminus of the D1 subunit is flexible, some waters near the active site are partially occupied, and differences in the PsbV subunit block the Large (O1) water channel. These features strongly influence the structural picture of PSII, especially as it pertains to the mechanism of water oxidation.

Structural Insights into Binding of Remdesivir Triphosphate within the Replication-Transcription Complex of SARS-CoV-2.

Remdesivir is an adenosine analogue that has a cyano substitution in the C1' position of the ribosyl moiety and a modified base structure to stabilize the linkage of the base to the C1' atom with its strong electron-withdrawing cyano group. Within the replication-transcription complex (RTC) of SARS-CoV-2, the RNA-dependent RNA polymerase nsp12 selects remdesivir monophosphate (RMP) over adenosine monophosphate (AMP) for nucleotide incorporation but noticeably slows primer extension after the added RMP of the RNA duplex product is translocated by three base pairs. Cryo-EM structures have been determined for the RTC with RMP at the nucleotide-insertion (i) site or at the i + 1, i + 2, or i + 3 sites after product translocation to provide a structural basis for a delayed-inhibition mechanism by remdesivir. In this study, we applied molecular dynamics (MD) simulations to extend the resolution of structures to the measurable maximum that is intrinsically limited by MD properties of these complexes. Our MD simulations provide (i) a structural basis for nucleotide selectivity of the incoming substrates of remdesivir triphosphate over adenosine triphosphate and of ribonucleotide over deoxyribonucleotide, (ii) new detailed information on hydrogen atoms involved in H-bonding interactions between the enzyme and remdesivir, and (iii) direct information on the catalytically active complex that is not easily captured by experimental methods. Our improved resolution of interatomic interactions at the nucleotide-binding pocket between remedesivir and the polymerase could help to design a new class of anti-SARS-CoV-2 inhibitors.

Insights into Binding of Single-Stranded Viral RNA Template to the Replication-Transcription Complex of SARS-CoV-2 for the Priming Reaction from Molecular Dynamics Simulations.

A minimal replication-transcription complex (RTC) of SARS-CoV-2 for synthesis of viral RNAs includes the nsp12 RNA-dependent RNA polymerase and two nsp8 RNA primase subunits for de novo primer synthesis, one nsp8 in complex with its accessory nsp7 subunit and the other without it. The RTC is responsible for faithfully copying the entire (+) sense viral genome from its first 5'-end to the last 3'-end nucleotides through a replication-intermediate (RI) template. The single-stranded (ss) RNA template for the RI is its 33-nucleotide 3'-poly(A) tail adjacent to a well-characterized secondary structure. The ssRNA template for viral transcription is a 5'-UUUAU-3' next to stem-loop (SL) 1'. We analyze the electrostatic potential distribution of the nsp8 subunit within the RTC around the template strand of the primer/template (P/T) RNA duplex in recently published cryo-EM structures to address the priming reaction using the viral poly(A) template. We carried out molecular dynamics (MD) simulations with a P/T RNA duplex, the viral poly(A) template, or a generic ssRNA template. We find evidence that the viral poly(A) template binds similarly to the template strand of the P/T RNA duplex within the RTC, mainly through electrostatic interactions, providing new insights into the priming reaction by the nsp8 subunit within the RTC, which differs significantly from the existing proposal of the nsp7/nsp8 oligomer formed outside the RTC. High-order oligomerization of nsp8 and nsp7 for SARS-CoV observed outside the RTC of SARS-CoV-2 is not found in the RTC and not likely to be relevant to the priming reaction.

A structurally preserved allosteric site in the MIF superfamily affects enzymatic activity and CD74 activation in D-dopachrome tautomerase.

The macrophage migration inhibitory factor (MIF) family of cytokines contains multiple ligand-binding sites and mediates immunomodulatory processes through an undefined mechanism(s). Previously, we reported a dynamic relay connecting the MIF catalytic site to an allosteric site at its solvent channel. Despite structural and functional similarity, the MIF homolog D-dopachrome tautomerase (also called MIF-2) has low sequence identity (35%), prompting the question of whether this dynamic regulatory network is conserved. Here, we establish the structural basis of an allosteric site in MIF-2, showing with solution NMR that dynamic communication is preserved in MIF-2 despite differences in the primary sequence. X-ray crystallography and NMR detail the structural consequences of perturbing residues in this pathway, which include conformational changes surrounding the allosteric site, despite global preservation of the MIF-2 fold. Molecular simulations reveal MIF-2 to contain a comparable hydrogen bond network to that of MIF, which was previously hypothesized to influence catalytic activity by modulating the strength of allosteric coupling. Disruption of the allosteric relay by mutagenesis also attenuates MIF-2 enzymatic activity in vitro and the activation of the cluster of differentiation 74 receptor in vivo, highlighting a conserved point of control for nonoverlapping functions in the MIF superfamily.

Glycerol binding at the narrow channel of photosystem II stabilizes the low-spin S2 state of the oxygen-evolving complex.

The oxygen-evolving complex (OEC) of photosystem II (PSII) cycles through redox intermediate states Si (i = 0-4) during the photochemical oxidation of water. The S2 state involves an equilibrium of two isomers including the low-spin S2 (LS-S2) state with its characteristic electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) multiline signal centered at g = 2.0, and a high-spin S2 (HS-S2) state with its g = 4.1 EPR signal. The relative intensities of the two EPR signals change under experimental conditions that shift the HS-S2/LS-S2 state equilibrium. Here, we analyze the effect of glycerol on the relative stability of the LS-S2 and HS-S2 states when bound at the narrow channel of PSII, as reported in an X-ray crystal structure of cyanobacterial PSII. Our quantum mechanics/molecular mechanics (QM/MM) hybrid models of cyanobacterial PSII show that the glycerol molecule perturbs the hydrogen-bond network in the narrow channel, increasing the pKa of D1-Asp61 and stabilizing the LS-S2 state relative to the HS-S2 state. The reported results are consistent with the absence of the HS-S2 state EPR signal in native cyanobacterial PSII EPR spectra and suggest that the narrow water channel hydrogen-bond network regulates the relative stability of OEC catalytic intermediates during water oxidation.

Electric field stimulates production of highly conductive microbial OmcZ nanowires.

Multifunctional living materials are attractive due to their powerful ability to self-repair and replicate. However, most natural materials lack electronic functionality. Here we show that an electric field, applied to electricity-producing Geobacter sulfurreducens biofilms, stimulates production of cytochrome OmcZ nanowires with 1,000-fold higher conductivity (30 S cm-1) and threefold higher stiffness (1.5 GPa) than the cytochrome OmcS nanowires that are important in natural environments. Using chemical imaging-based multimodal nanospectroscopy, we correlate protein structure with function and observe pH-induced conformational switching to ß-sheets in individual nanowires, which increases their stiffness and conductivity by 100-fold due to enhanced π-stacking of heme groups; this was further confirmed by computational modeling and bulk spectroscopic studies. These nanowires can transduce mechanical and chemical stimuli into electrical signals to perform sensing, synthesis and energy production. These findings of biologically produced, highly conductive protein nanowires may help to guide the development of seamless, bidirectional interfaces between biological and electronic systems.

Binding of the substrate analog methanol in the oxygen-evolving complex of photosystem II in the D1-N87A genetic variant of cyanobacteria.

The solar water-splitting protein complex, photosystem II (PSII), catalyzes one of the most energetically demanding reactions in nature by using light energy to drive a catalyst capable of oxidizing water. The water oxidation reaction is catalyzed at the Mn4Ca-oxo cluster in the oxygen-evolving complex (OEC), which cycles through five light-driven S-state intermediates (S0-S4). A detailed mechanism of the reaction remains elusive as it requires knowledge of the delivery and binding of substrate water in the higher S-state intermediates. In this study, we use two-dimensional (2D) hyperfine sublevel correlation spectroscopy, in conjunction with quantum mechanics/molecular mechanics (QM/MM) and density functional theory (DFT), to probe the binding of the substrate analog, methanol, in the S2 state of the D1-N87A variant of PSII from Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803. The results indicate that the size and specificity of the "narrow" channel is altered in D1-N87A PSII, allowing for the binding of deprotonated 13C-labeled methanol at the Mn4(IV) ion of the catalytic cluster in the S2 state. This has important implications on the mechanistic models for water oxidation in PSII.

Mechanism of Inhibition of the Reproduction of SARS-CoV-2 and Ebola Viruses by Remdesivir.

Remdesivir is an antiviral drug initially designed against the Ebola virus. The results obtained with it both in biochemical studies in vitro and in cell line assays in vivo were very promising, but it proved to be ineffective in clinical trials. Remdesivir exhibited far better efficacy when repurposed against SARS-CoV-2. The chemistry that accounts for this difference is the subject of this study. Here, we examine the hypothesis that remdesivir monophosphate (RMP)-containing RNA functions as a template at the polymerase site for the second run of RNA synthesis, and as mRNA at the decoding center for protein synthesis. Our hypothesis is supported by the observation that RMP can be incorporated into RNA by the RNA-dependent RNA polymerases (RdRps) of both viruses, although some of the incorporated RMPs are subsequently removed by exoribonucleases. Furthermore, our hypothesis is consistent with the fact that RdRp of SARS-CoV-2 selects RMP for incorporation over AMP by 3-fold in vitro, and that RMP-added RNA can be rapidly extended, even though primer extension is often paused when the added RMP is translocated at the i + 3 position (with i the nascent base pair at an initial insertion site of RMP) or when the concentrations of the subsequent nucleoside triphosphates (NTPs) are below their physiological concentrations. These observations have led to the hypothesis that remdesivir might be a delayed chain terminator. However, that hypothesis is challenged under physiological concentrations of NTPs by the observation that approximately three-quarters of RNA products efficiently overrun the pause.

Heterogeneous Composition of Oxygen-Evolving Complexes in Crystal Structures of Dark-Adapted Photosystem II.

Photosystem II (PSII) is a homodimeric protein complex that catalyzes water oxidation at the oxygen-evolving complex (OEC), a heterocubanoid calcium-tetramanganese cluster. Here, we analyze the omit electron density peaks of the OEC's metal ions in five X-ray free-electron laser PSII structures at resolutions between 2.15 and 1.95 Å. The omit peaks can be described by the total number of electrons and approximated by the variance of electron density distribution when the distributions are spherically symmetric. We show that the number of electrons of metal centers is different in the two OECs of PSII dimers, implying that the oxidation states and/or occupancies of individual metal ions are different in the two monomers. In either case, we find that the two OECs of dark-adapted PSII dimers in crystals are not fully synchronized in the S1 state. Differences in redox states of the OEC in PSII only partially account for the observation that the electron densities integrate to a smaller number of electrons than expected. Differences between the determined and expected relative electron numbers are much larger than the estimated errors, indicating heterogeneity in the OEC composition.

Copper-mediated thiol potentiation and mutagenesis-guided modeling suggest a highly conserved copper-binding motif in human OR2M3.

Sulfur-containing compounds within a physiological relevant, natural odor space, such as the key food odorants, typically constitute the group of volatiles with the lowest odor thresholds. The observation that certain metals, such as copper, potentiate the smell of sulfur-containing, metal-coordinating odorants led to the hypothesis that their cognate receptors are metalloproteins. However, experimental evidence is sparse-so far, only one human odorant receptor, OR2T11, and a few mouse receptors, have been reported to be activated by sulfur-containing odorants in a copper-dependent way, while the activation of other receptors by sulfur-containing odorants did not depend on the presence of metals. Here we identified an evolutionary conserved putative copper interaction motif CC/CSSH, comprising two copper-binding sites in TMH5 and TMH6, together with the binding pocket for 3-mercapto-2-methylpentan-1-ol in the narrowly tuned human receptor OR2M3. To characterize the copper-binding motif, we combined homology modeling, docking studies, site-directed mutagenesis, and functional expression of recombinant ORs in a cell-based, real-time luminescence assay. Ligand activation of OR2M3 was potentiated in the presence of copper. This effect of copper was mimicked by ionic and colloidal silver. In two broadly tuned receptors, OR1A1 and OR2W1, which did not reveal a putative copper interaction motif, activation by their most potent, sulfur-containing key food odorants did not depend on the presence of copper. Our results suggest a highly conserved putative copper-binding motif to be necessary for a copper-modulated and thiol-specific function of members from three subfamilies of family 2 ORs.

The structural basis for cancer drug interactions with the catalytic and allosteric sites of SAMHD1.

SAMHD1 is a deoxynucleoside triphosphate triphosphohydrolase (dNTPase) that depletes cellular dNTPs in noncycling cells to promote genome stability and to inhibit retroviral and herpes viral replication. In addition to being substrates, cellular nucleotides also allosterically regulate SAMHD1 activity. Recently, it was shown that high expression levels of SAMHD1 are also correlated with significantly worse patient responses to nucleotide analog drugs important for treating a variety of cancers, including acute myeloid leukemia (AML). In this study, we used biochemical, structural, and cellular methods to examine the interactions of various cancer drugs with SAMHD1. We found that both the catalytic and the allosteric sites of SAMHD1 are sensitive to sugar modifications of the nucleotide analogs, with the allosteric site being significantly more restrictive. We crystallized cladribine-TP, clofarabine-TP, fludarabine-TP, vidarabine-TP, cytarabine-TP, and gemcitabine-TP in the catalytic pocket of SAMHD1. We found that all of these drugs are substrates of SAMHD1 and that the efficacy of most of these drugs is affected by SAMHD1 activity. Of the nucleotide analogs tested, only cladribine-TP with a deoxyribose sugar efficiently induced the catalytically active SAMHD1 tetramer. Together, these results establish a detailed framework for understanding the substrate specificity and allosteric activation of SAMHD1 with regard to nucleotide analogs, which can be used to improve current cancer and antiviral therapies.

Allosteric Impact of the Variable Insert Loop in Vaccinia H1-Related (VHR) Phosphatase.

Dynamics and conformational motions are important to the activity of enzymes, including protein tyrosine phosphatases. These motions often extend to regions outside the active site, called allosteric regions. In the tyrosine phosphatase Vaccinia H1-related (VHR) enzyme, we demonstrate the importance of the allosteric interaction between the variable insert region and the active-site loops in VHR. These studies include solution nuclear magnetic resonance, computation, steady-state, and rapid kinetic measurements. Overall, the data indicate concerted millisecond motions exist between the variable insert and the catalytic acid loop in wild-type (WT) VHR. The 150 ns computation studies show a flexible acid loop in WT VHR that opens during the simulation from its initial closed structure. Mutation of the variable insert residue, asparagine 74, to alanine results in a rigidification of the acid loop as observed by molecular dynamics simulations and a disruption of crucial active-site hydrogen bonds. Moreover, enzyme kinetic analysis shows a weakening of substrate affinity in the N74A mutant and a >2-fold decrease in substrate cleavage and hydrolysis rates. These data show that despite being nearly 20 Å from the active site, the variable insert region is linked to the acid loop by coupled millisecond motions, and that disruption of the communication between the variable insert and active site alters the normal catalytic function of VHR and perturbs the active-site environment.

Identification of a Na+-Binding Site near the Oxygen-Evolving Complex of Spinach Photosystem II.

The oxygen-evolving complex (OEC) of photosystem II (PSII) is an oxomanganese cluster composed of four redox-active Mn ions and one redox-inactive Ca2+ ion, with two nearby bound Cl- ions. Sodium is a common counterion of both chloride and hydroxide anions, and a sodium-specific binding site has not been identified near the OEC. Here, we find that the oxygen-evolution activity of spinach PSII increases with Na+ concentration, particularly at high pH. A Na+-specific binding site next to the OEC, becomes available after deprotonation of the D1-H337 amino acid residue, is suggested by the analysis of two recently published PSII cryo-electron microscopy maps in combination with quantum mechanical calculations and multiconformation continuum electrostatics simulations.

D1-S169A Substitution of Photosystem II Perturbs Water Oxidation.

In photosystem II (PSII), photosynthetic water oxidation occurs at the tetramanganese-calcium cluster that cycles through light-induced intermediates (S0-S4) to produce oxygen from two substrate waters. The surrounding hydrogen-bonded amino acid residues and waters form channels that facilitate proton transfer and substrate water delivery, thereby ensuring efficient water oxidation. The residue D1-S169 lies in the "narrow" channel and forms hydrogen bonds with the Mn4CaO5 cluster via waters W1 and Wx. To probe the role of the narrow channel in substrate-water binding, we studied the D1-S169A mutation. PSII core complexes isolated from mutant cells exhibit inefficient S-state cycling and delayed oxygen evolution. The S2-state multiline EPR spectrum of D1-S169A PSII core complexes differed significantly from that of wild-type, and FTIR difference spectra showed that the mutation strongly perturbs the extensive network of hydrogen bonds that extends at least from D1-Y161 (YZ) to D1-D61. These results imply a possible role of D1-S169 in proton egress or substrate water delivery.

Relative stability of the S2 isomers of the oxygen evolving complex of photosystem II.

The oxidation of water to O2 is catalyzed by the Oxygen Evolving Complex (OEC), a Mn4CaO5 complex in Photosystem II (PSII). The OEC is sequentially oxidized from state S0 to S4. The S2 state, (MnIII)(MnIV)3, coexists in two redox isomers: S2,g=2, where Mn4 is MnIV and S2,g=4.1, where Mn1 is MnIV. Mn4 has two terminal water ligands, whose proton affinity is affected by the Mn oxidation state. The relative energy of the two S2 redox isomers and the protonation state of the terminal water ligands are analyzed using classical multi-conformer continuum electrostatics (MCCE). The Monte Carlo simulations are done on QM/MM optimized S1 and S2 structures docked back into the complete PSII, keeping the protonation state of the protein at equilibrium with the OEC redox and protonation states. Wild-type PSII, chloride-depleted PSII, PSII in the presence of oxidized YZ/protonated D1-H190, and the PSII mutants D2-K317A, D1-D61A, and D1-S169A are studied at pH 6. The wild-type PSII at pH 8 is also described. In qualitative agreement with experiment, in wild-type PSII, the S2,g=2 redox isomer is the lower energy state; while chloride depletion or pH 8 stabilizes the S2,g=4.1 state and the mutants D2-K317A, D1-D61A, and D1-S169A favor the S2,g=2 state. The protonation states of D1-E329, D1-E65, D1-H337, D1-D61, and the terminal waters on Mn4 (W1 and W2) are affected by the OEC oxidation state. The terminal W2 on Mn4 is a mixture of water and hydroxyl in the S2,g=2 state, indicating the two water protonation states have similar energy, while it remains neutral in the S1 and S2,g=4.1 states. In wild-type PSII, advancement to S2 leads to negligible proton loss and so there is an accumulation of positive charge. In the analyzed mutations and Cl- depleted PSII, additional deprotonation is found upon formation of S2 state.

Reduced Occupancy of the Oxygen-Evolving Complex of Photosystem II Detected in Cryo-Electron Microscopy Maps.

Computational simulations of electrostatic potentials (ESPs), based on atomistic models and independent atomic scattering factors, have remained challenging when applied to the oxygen-evolving complex (OEC) of photosystem II (PSII). Here, we overcome that challenge by using an ESP function obtained with density functional theory and atomic coordinates for the OEC of PSII obtained by optimization of the dark-adapted S1 state. We find that the ESP is much higher for the OEC than for the nearby reference side chain of amino acid residue D1-H190. In contrast, experimental ESP maps recently published for two PSII-light-harvesting complex II super-complexes show that the ESP of the OEC is approximately half the value of the D1-H190 side chain. The apparent disparity is attributed to a reduced 31-38% occupancy of the OEC, likely associated with its reduction by electron scattering.

Occupancy Analysis of Water Molecules inside Channels within 25 Å Radius of the Oxygen-Evolving Center of Photosystem II in Molecular Dynamics Simulations.

At room temperature and neutral pH, the oxygen-evolving center (OEC) of photosystem II (PSII) catalyzes water oxidation. During this process, oxygen is released from the OEC, while substrate waters are delivered to the OEC and protons are passed from the OEC to the lumen through water channels known as the narrow or the O4 channel, broad or the Cl1 channel, and large or the O1 channel. Protein residues lining the surfaces of these channels play a critical role in stabilizing the hydrogen-bonding networks that assist in the process. We carried out an occupancy analysis to better understand the structural and possible substrate water dynamics in full PSII monomer molecular dynamics (MD) trajectories in both the S1 and S2 states. We find that the equilibrated positions of water molecules derived from MD-derived electron density maps largely match the experimentally observed positions in crystallography. Furthermore, the occupancy reduction in MD simulations of some water molecules inside the single-filed narrow channel also correlates well with the crystallographic data during a structural transition when the S1 state of the OEC advances to the S2 state. The overall reduced occupancies of water molecules are the source of their "vacancy-hopping" dynamic nature inside these channels, unlike water molecules inside an ice lattice where all water molecules have a fixed unit occupancy. We propose on the basis of findings in our structural and molecular dynamics analysis that the water molecule occupying a pocket formed by D1-D61, D1-S169, and O4 of the OEC could be the last steppingstone to enter into the OEC and that the broad channel may be favored for proton transfer.

Corrigendum to Quantitative assessment of chlorophyll types in cryo-EM maps of photosystem I acclimated to far-red light BBA Advances 1 (2021) 100019.

[This corrects the article DOI: 10.1016/j.bbadva.2021.100019.].

Proton exit pathways surrounding the oxygen evolving complex of photosystem II.

Photosystem II allows water to be the primary electron source for the photosynthetic electron transfer chain. Water is oxidized to dioxygen at the Oxygen Evolving Complex (OEC), a Mn4CaO5 inorganic core embedded on the lumenal side of PSII. Water-filled channels surrounding the OEC must bring in substrate water molecules, remove the product protons to the lumen, and may transport the product oxygen. Three water-filled channels, denoted large, narrow, and broad, extend from the OEC towards the aqueous surface more than 15 Å away. However, the role of each pathway in the transport in and out of the OEC is yet to be established. Here, we combine Molecular Dynamics (MD), Multi Conformation Continuum Electrostatics (MCCE) and Network Analysis to compare and contrast the three potential proton transfer paths. Hydrogen bond network analysis shows that near the OEC the waters are highly interconnected with similar free energy for hydronium at all locations. The paths diverge as they move towards the lumen. The water chain in the broad channel is better connected than in the narrow and large channels, where disruptions in the network are observed approximately 10 Å from the OEC. In addition, the barrier for hydronium translocation is lower in the broad channel. Thus, a proton released from any location on the OEC can access all paths, but the likely exit to the lumen passes through PsbO via the broad channel.