Receptor-Mediated Mechanism Controlling Tissue Levels of Bioactive Lipid Oxidation Products.

RATIONALE: Oxidative stress is an important contributing factor in several human pathologies ranging from atherosclerosis to cancer progression; however, the mechanisms underlying tissue protection from oxidation products are poorly understood. Oxidation of membrane phospholipids, containing the polyunsaturated fatty acid docosahexaenoic acid, results in the accumulation of an end product, 2-(ω-carboxyethyl)pyrrole (CEP), which was shown to have proangiogenic and proinflammatory functions. Although CEP is continuously accumulated during chronic processes, such as tumor progression and atherosclerosis, its level during wound healing return to normal when the wound is healed, suggesting the existence of a specific clearance mechanism. OBJECTIVE: To identify the cellular and molecular mechanism for CEP clearance. METHODS AND RESULTS: Here, we show that macrophages are able to bind, scavenge, and metabolize carboxyethylpyrrole derivatives of proteins but not structurally similar ethylpyrrole derivatives, demonstrating the high specificity of the process. F4/80(hi) and M2-skewed macrophages are much more efficient at CEP binding and scavenging compared with F4/80(lo) and M1-skewed macrophages. Depletion of macrophages leads to increased CEP accumulation in vivo. CEP binding and clearance are dependent on 2 receptors expressed by macrophages, CD36 and toll-like receptor 2. Although knockout of each individual receptor results in diminished CEP clearance, the lack of both receptors almost completely abrogates macrophages' ability to scavenge CEP derivatives of proteins. CONCLUSIONS: Our study demonstrates the mechanisms of recognition, scavenging, and clearance of pathophysiologically active products of lipid oxidation in vivo, thereby contributing to tissue protection against products of oxidative stress.

Covalent Labeling Denaturation Mass Spectrometry for Sensitive Localized Higher Order Structure Comparisons.

Protein higher order structure (HOS) describes the three-dimensional folding arrangement of a given protein and plays critical roles in structure/function relationships. As such, it is a key product quality attribute that is monitored during biopharmaceutical development. Covalent labeling of surface residues, combined with mass spectrometry analysis, has increasingly played an important role in characterizing localized protein HOS. Since the label can potentially induce conformation changes, protocols generally use a small amount of label to ensure that the integrity of the protein HOS is not disturbed. The present study, however, describes a method that purposely uses high amounts of isobaric label (levels that induce denaturation) to enhance the sensitivity and resolution for detecting localized structural differences between two or more biological products. The method proved to be highly discriminative, detecting differences in HOS affecting as little as 2.5-5% of the molecular population, levels at which circular dichroism and nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy fingerprinting, both gold standard HOS techniques, were unable to adequately differentiate. The methodology was shown to have comparable sensitivity to differential scanning calorimetry for detecting HOS differences. In addition, the workflow presented herein can also quantify other product attributes such as post-translational modifications and site-specific glycosylation, using a single liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) run with automated data analysis. We applied this technique to characterize a large (>90 kDa), multiply glycosylated therapeutic protein under different heat stress conditions and aggregation states.

IsoformResolver: A peptide-centric algorithm for protein inference.

When analyzing proteins in complex samples using tandem mass spectrometry of peptides generated by proteolysis, the inference of proteins can be ambiguous, even with well-validated peptides. Unresolved questions include whether to show all possible proteins vs a minimal list, what to do when proteins are inferred ambiguously, and how to quantify peptides that bridge multiple proteins, each with distinguishing evidence. Here we describe IsoformResolver, a peptide-centric protein inference algorithm that clusters proteins in two ways, one based on peptides experimentally identified from MS/MS spectra, and the other based on peptides derived from an in silico digest of the protein database. MS/MS-derived protein groups report minimal list proteins in the context of all possible proteins, without redundantly listing peptides. In silico-derived protein groups pull together functionally related proteins, providing stable identifiers. The peptide-centric grouping strategy used by IsoformResolver allows proteins to be displayed together when they share peptides in common, providing a comprehensive yet concise way to organize protein profiles. It also summarizes information on spectral counts and is especially useful for comparing results from multiple LC-MS/MS experiments. Finally, we examine the relatedness of proteins within IsoformResolver groups and compare its performance to other protein inference software.

Quantifying the impact of chimera MS/MS spectra on peptide identification in large-scale proteomics studies.

A complicating factor for protein identification within complex mixtures by LC/MS/MS is the problem of "chimera" spectra, where two or more precursor ions with similar mass and retention time are co-sequenced by MS/MS. Chimera spectra show reduced scores due to unidentifiable fragment ions derived from contaminating parents. However, the extent of chimeras in LC/MS/MS data sets and their impact on protein identification workflows are incompletely understood. We report ChimeraCounter, a software program which detects chimeras in data sets collected on an Orbitrap/LTQ instrument. Evaluation of synthetic chimeras created from pairs of well-defined peptide MS/MS spectra reveal that chimeras reduce database search scores most significantly when contaminating fragment ion intensities exceed 20% of the targeted fragment ion intensities. In large-scale data sets, the identification rate for chimera MS/MS is 2-fold lower compared to nonchimera spectra. Importantly, this occurs in a manner which depends not on absolute precursor ion intensity, but on intensity relative to the median precursor intensity distribution. We further show that chimeras reduce the number of accepted peptide identifications by increasing false negatives while showing little increase in false positives. The results provide a framework for identifying chimeras and characterizing their contribution to the poorly understood false negative class of MS/MS.

Retinal pigment epithelium lipofuscin proteomics.

Lipofuscin accumulates with age in the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) in discrete granular organelles and may contribute to age-related macular degeneration. Because previous studies suggest that lipofuscin contains protein that may impact pathogenic mechanisms, we pursued proteomics analysis of lipofuscin. The composition of RPE lipofuscin and its mechanisms of pathogenesis are poorly understood in part because of the heterogeneity of isolated preparations. We purified RPE lipofuscin granules by treatment with proteinase K or SDS and showed by light, confocal, and transmission electron microscopy that the purified granules are free of extragranular material and associated membranes. Crude and purified lipofuscin preparations were quantitatively compared by (i) LC MS/MS proteomics analyses, (ii) immunoanalyses of oxidative protein modifications, (iii) amino acid analysis, (iv) HPLC of bisretinoids, and (v) assaying phototoxicity to RPE cells. From crude lipofuscin preparations 186 proteins were identified, many of which appeared to be modified. In contrast, very little protein ( approximately 2% (w/w) by amino acid analysis) and no identifiable protein were found in the purified granules, which retained full phototoxicity to cultured RPE cells. Our analyses showed that granules in purified and crude lipofuscin preparations exhibit no statistically significant differences in diameter or circularity or in the content of the bisretinoids A2E, isoA2E, and all-trans-retinal dimer-phosphatidylethanolamine. The finding that the purified granules contain minimal protein yet retain phototoxic activity suggests that RPE lipofuscin pathogenesis is largely independent of associated protein. The purified granules also exhibited oxidative protein modifications, including nitrotyrosine generated from reactive nitrogen oxide species and carboxyethylpyrrole and iso[4]levuglandin E(2) adducts generated from reactive lipid fragments. This finding is consistent with previous studies demonstrating RPE lipofuscin to be a potent generator of reactive oxygen species and supports the hypothesis that such species, including reactive fragments from lipids and retinoids, contribute to the mechanisms of RPE lipofuscin pathogenesis.

SOD2 knockdown mouse model of early AMD.

PURPOSE: To test the hypothesis that oxidative injury to the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) may lead to retinal damage similar to that associated with the early stages of age-related macular degeneration (AMD). METHODS: A ribozyme that targets the protective enzyme manganese superoxide dismutase (MnSOD) was expressed in RPE-J cells, and adeno-associated virus (AAV) expressing the ribozyme gene was injected beneath the retinas of adult C57BL/6 mice. The RPE/choroid complex was examined for SOD2 protein levels and protein markers of oxidative damage using immunoblot analysis and LC MS/MS-identification of proteins and nitration sites. Lipids were extracted from retinal tissue and analyzed for the bis-retinoid compounds A2E and iso-A2E. The mice were analyzed by full-field electroretinography (ERG) for light response. Light and electron microscopy were used to measure cytological changes in the retinas. RESULTS: The treatment of RPE-J cells with Rz432 resulted in decreased MnSOD mRNA and protein as well as increased levels of superoxide anion and apoptotic cell death. When delivered by AAV, Rz432 reduced MnSOD protein and increased markers of oxidative damage, including nitrated and carboxyethylpyrrole-modified proteins in the RPE-choroid of mice. Ribozyme delivery caused a progressive loss of electroretinograph response, vacuolization, degeneration of the RPE, thickening of Bruch's membrane, and shortening and disorganization of the photoreceptor outer and inner segments. Progressive thinning of the photoreceptor outer nuclear layer resulted from apoptotic cell death. Similar to the eyes of patients with AMD, ribozyme-treated eyes exhibited increased autofluorescence and elevated levels of A2E and iso-A2E, major bis-retinoid pigments of lipofuscin. CONCLUSIONS: These results support the hypothesis that oxidative damage to the RPE may play a role in some of the key features of AMD.

A Low-density Antigen Array for Detection of Disease-associated Autoantibodies in Human Plasma.

BACKGROUND/AIM: The ability to easily detect autoantibodies will help in the early diagnosis and treatment of certain diseases. Currently, available methods for autoantibody detection are time-consuming and cumbersome. The present study aimed to evaluate the performance of an easy-to-use antigen array developed for autoantibody detection. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Plasma from 9 female donors diagnosed with ovarian cancer (test group) and 9 matched donors with no history of cancer (reference group) were screened and results were compared. Autoantibody levels ≥1.5-times the background were classified as positive. RESULTS: A total of 29 autoantibodies were detected, out of which the autoantibody against osteoprotegerin was found to be significantly higher in the "test" group (p<0.001) while those against macrophage migration inhibitor factor, interleukin-2 and vascular endothelial growth factor were lower (p<0.05). CONCLUSION: The evaluated antigen array has potential as a simple method for determining the presence/absence of up to 90 disease-associated autoantibodies in a plasma specimen.

Centromere protein F includes two sites that couple efficiently to depolymerizing microtubules.

Firm attachments between kinetochores and dynamic spindle microtubules (MTs) are important for accurate chromosome segregation. Centromere protein F (CENP-F) has been shown to include two MT-binding domains, so it may participate in this key mitotic process. Here, we show that the N-terminal MT-binding domain of CENP-F prefers curled oligomers of tubulin relative to MT walls by approximately fivefold, suggesting that it may contribute to the firm bonds between kinetochores and the flared plus ends of dynamic MTs. A polypeptide from CENP-F's C terminus also bound MTs, and either protein fragment diffused on a stable MT wall. They also followed the ends of dynamic MTs as they shortened. When either fragment was coupled to a microbead, the force it could transduce from a shortening MT averaged 3-5 pN but could exceed 10 pN, identifying CENP-F as a highly effective coupler to shortening MTs.

A colorimetric method for monitoring tryptic digestion prior to shotgun proteomics.

Tryptic digestion is an important preanalytical step in shotgun proteomics because inadequate or excessive digestion can result in a failed or incomplete experiment. Unfortunately, this step is not routinely monitored before mass spectrometry because methods available for protein digestion monitoring either are time/sample consuming or require expensive equipment. To determine if a colorimetric method (ProDM Kit) can be used to identify the extent of tryptic digestion that yields the best proteomics outcome, plasma and serum digested for 8 h and 24 h were screened with ProDM, Bioanalyzer, and LC/MS/MS, and the effect of digestion on the number of proteins identified and sequence coverage was compared. About 6% and 16% less proteins were identified when >50% of proteins were digested in plasma and serum, respectively, compared to when ~46% of proteins were digested. Average sequence coverage for albumin, haptoglobin, and serotransferrin after 2 h, 8 h, and 24 h digestion was 52%, 45%, and 45% for serum and 54%, 47%, and 42% for plasma, respectively. This paper reiterates the importance of optimizing the tryptic digestion step and demonstrates the extent to which ProDM can be used to monitor and standardize protein digestion to achieve better proteomics outcomes.

CEP biomarkers as potential tools for monitoring therapeutics.

BACKGROUND: Carboxyethylpyrrole (CEP) adducts are oxidative modifications derived from docosahexaenoate-containing lipids that are elevated in ocular tissues and plasma in age-related macular degeneration (AMD) and in rodents exposed to intense light. The goal of this study was to determine whether light-induced CEP adducts and autoantibodies are modulated by pretreatment with AL-8309A under conditions that prevent photo-oxidative damage of rat retina. AL-8309A is a serotonin 5-HT1A receptor agonist. METHODS: Albino rats were dark adapted prior to blue light exposure. Control rats were maintained in normal cyclic light. Rats were injected subcutaneously 3x with 10 mg/kg AL-8309A (2 days, 1 day and 0 hours) before light exposure for 6 h (3.1 mW/cm(2), λ=450 nm). Animals were sacrificed immediately following light exposure and eyes, retinas and plasma were collected. CEP adducts and autoantibodies were quantified by Western analysis or ELISA. RESULTS: ANOVA supported significant differences in mean amounts of CEP adducts and autoantibodies among the light + vehicle, light + drug and dark control groups from both retina and plasma. Light-induced CEP adducts in retina were reduced ~20% following pretreatment with AL-8309A (n = 62 rats, p = 0.006) and retinal CEP immunoreactivity was less intense by immunohistochemistry. Plasma levels of light-induced CEP adducts were reduced at least 30% (n = 15 rats, p = 0.004) by drug pretreatment. Following drug treatment, average CEP autoantibody titer in light exposed rats (n = 22) was unchanged from dark control levels, and ~20% (p = 0.046) lower than in vehicle-treated rats. CONCLUSIONS: Light-induced CEP adducts in rat retina and plasma were significantly decreased by pretreatment with AL-8309A. These results are consistent with and extend previous studies showing AL-8309A reduces light-induced retinal lesions in rats and support CEP biomarkers as possible tools for monitoring the efficacy of select therapeutics.

The effect of selenium enrichment on baker's yeast proteome.

The use of regular yeast (RY) and selenium-enriched yeast (SEY) as dietary supplement is of interest because the Nutritional Prevention of Cancer (NPC) trial revealed that SEY but not RY decreased the incidence of prostate cancer (PC). Using two-dimensional difference in gel electrophoresis (2D-DIGE)-tandem mass spectrometry (MS/MS) approach, we performed proteomic analysis of RY and SEY to identify proteins that are differentially expressed as a result of selenium enrichment. 2D-DIGE revealed 96 candidate protein spots that were differentially expressed (p≤0.05) between SEY and RY. The 96 spots were selected, sequenced by LC/MS/MS and 37 proteins were unequivocally identified. The 37 identified proteins were verified with ProteinProphet software and mapped to existing Gene Ontology categories. Furthermore, the expression profile of 5 of the proteins with validated or putative roles in the carcinogenesis process, and for which antibodies against human forms of the proteins are available commercially was verified by western analysis. This study provides evidence for the first time that SEY contains higher levels of Pyruvate Kinase, HSP70, and Elongation factor 2 and lower levels of Eukaryotic Translation Initiation Factor 5A-2 and Triosephosphate Isomerase than those found in RY.

Carboxyethylpyrrole oxidative protein modifications stimulate neovascularization: Implications for age-related macular degeneration.

Choroidal neovascularization (CNV), the advanced stage of age-related macular degeneration (AMD), accounts for >80% of vision loss in AMD. Carboxyethylpyrrole (CEP) protein modifications, uniquely generated from oxidation of docosahexaenoate-containing lipids, are more abundant in Bruch's membrane from AMD eyes. We tested the hypothesis that CEP protein adducts stimulate angiogenesis and possibly contribute to CNV in AMD. Human serum albumin (HSA) or acetyl-Gly-Lys-O-methyl ester (dipeptide) were chemically modified to yield CEP-modified HSA (CEP-HSA) or CEP-dipeptide. The in vivo angiogenic properties of CEP-HSA and CEP-dipeptide were demonstrated by using the chick chorioallantoic membrane and rat corneal micropocket assays. Low picomole amounts of CEP-HSA and CEP-dipeptide stimulated neovascularization. Monoclonal anti-CEP antibody neutralized limbal vessel growth stimulated by CEP-HSA, whereas anti-VEGF antibody was found to only partially neutralize vessel growth. Subretinal injections of CEP-modified mouse serum albumin exacerbated laser-induced CNV in mice. In vitro treatments of human retinal pigment epithelial cells with CEP-dipeptide or CEP-HSA did not induce increased VEGF secretion. Overall, these results suggest that CEP-induced angiogenesis utilizes VEGF-independent pathways and that anti-CEP therapeutic modalities might be of value in limiting CNV in AMD.

pKa and volume of residue one influence delta/mu opioid binding: QSAR analysis of tyrosine replacement in a nonselective deltorphin analogue.

[Gly(4)]deltorphin (Tyr-D-Ala-Phe-Gly-Val-Val-Gly-NH(2)) is a nonselective analogue of the opioid heptapeptides isolated from Phyllomedusa amphibian skin. Its nonselective nature allows for simultaneous characterization of the effects of sequence modification on both delta (delta) and mu (mu) receptor binding. The N-terminal regions of opioid peptides are considered to be responsible for receptor recognition, and the tyrosine at position one is relatively intolerant to alteration. In order to further investigate the role of the phenolic hydroxyl group in receptor interaction, a series of peptides was synthesized in which the position-one tyrosine residue was replaced with analogues of varying electronic, steric, and acid/base character, including ring-substituted tyrosines, para-substituted phenylalanines, and other nonaromatic and heterocyclic amino acids. The effects of these replacements on delta and mu receptor affinities were measured and then analyzed through quantitative structure-activity relationship (QSAR) calculations. Results support a dual hydrogen bond donor/acceptor role for the Tyr(1) hydroxyl moiety, with less acidic hydroxyl groups exhibiting stronger binding to opioid receptors. In addition, steric bulk in the Tyr(1) position independently strengthens mu and possibly delta binding, presumably by either a ligand conformational effect or enhanced van der Waals interactions with a 'loose' receptor site. The pK(a) effect is stronger on delta than on mu binding, generating an increase in delta selectivity with increasing residue-one pK(a).