Veterinary Anatomy Education and Spatial Ability: Where Now and Where Next?

The expanding use of technology to support or replace dissection has implications for educators, who must first understand how students mentally manipulate anatomical images. The psychological literature on spatial ability and general intelligence is relevant to these considerations. This article situates current understandings of spatial ability in the context of veterinary anatomy education. As in medical education, veterinary courses are increasingly using physical and computer-based models and computer programs to supplement or even replace cadavers. In this article, we highlight the importance of spatial ability in the learning of anatomy and make methodological recommendations for future studies to ensure a robust evidence base is developed. Recommendations include ensuring that (a) studies aiming to demonstrate changes in spatial ability include anatomically naïve students and also account for previous anatomical knowledge, (b) studies employ a control group in order to account for the practice effect, and (c) the relationship between spatial ability and general intelligence, and thus other cognitive abilities, is acknowledged.

The VetEd Conference: Evolution of an Educational Community of Practice.

The VetEd conference was developed with the aim of growing an educational community by providing an opportunity to share ideas, innovations, research, and best practices in veterinary education in a friendly, affordable, and inclusive environment. The annual conference has been hosted by the veterinary schools in the UK, Ireland, and the Netherlands, becoming the official conference of the Veterinary Schools Council in 2017. The current study investigates the extent to which the development of the conference has contributed to the evolution of a community of practice. The conference proceedings' abstracts were analyzed to identify trends in number, type, and author information. This was complemented by oral histories exploring the impact of VetEd on developing the veterinary education community. The number of abstracts has increased from 40 (2010) to 137 (2018), and these are predominantly posters, with the major themes being technology-enhanced learning, clinical skills, and assessment. The authors have been increasingly international, representing 8 countries in 2010 and 22 in 2018. Nine interviews were undertaken with those involved in organizing VetEd. The inclusivity of the conference and the engagement of a wide variety of delegate groups are key themes that emerged. Concerns emerged around the organizational challenges and the potential for the conference to outgrow the founding principles in the future. VetEd has become a key event in the annual calendar and represents an initiative that has contributed to the ongoing development of the veterinary education community.

The Use of Lecture Recordings as Study Aids in a Professional Degree Program.

Lecture recording is now common in many educational institutions, leading to discussion about how best to support student learning. In this mixed methods study, we used a survey (n = 46 participants), think-aloud methodologies in observed study sessions (n = 8 participants) and recording analytics (n = 637 recordings) to characterize how veterinary students utilize recordings during their studies. Only 48% of survey respondents considered they were more likely to use recordings as exams approached, but 78% considered they used recordings more when the topic was difficult. In the observed study sessions, students characterized their use of recordings as helping them to control their learning environment, allowing them to pause and rewind challenging topics, and as a jumping off point for future study, allowing them to structure the seeking out of additional information. In a linear model describing the recording analytics, students who had entered higher education directly from high school were more likely to watch more of a lecture than graduate entry students. In addition, the most visited lectures were also the ones with more view time (F(5, 631) = 129.5, R2 = 0.50, p < .001). Overall, this study suggests that veterinary students were selective about their use of recordings in their study strategies, often using them to make up for deficits in their knowledge and understanding, or to supplement their experience at veterinary school. We discuss the consequences and implications for student study skills support.

Exploring Student Experiences of an Undergraduate Certificate in Veterinary Medical Education.

The ability to teach is recognized as a core skill for many professionals, including veterinarians, but undergraduate opportunities to develop this skill are not always available. A complementary teaching certificate offered during the clinical years of an undergraduate veterinary program was evaluated to investigate student experiences of the program and the perceived benefits and challenges of participating. The study used a mixed methods approach with questionnaires to provide an overview of the participant experience and semi-structured interviews to gain a deeper insight into students' experiences of the program. Two cohorts completed questionnaires comprising Likert-style and open-ended questions on the 3-year teaching certificate, the first cohort after 1 year of the program and the second cohort at completion. Interviews with participants from both cohorts were thematically analyzed to identify recurring themes. An average of 27% of students per academic year enrolled in the certificate program, most of whom completed it. Additionally, four to six students per cohort applied for Associate Fellow of the Higher Education Academy (AFHEA), and 19 students have achieved this recognition. Key themes from the data included that students felt the certificate built their confidence, increased their veterinary knowledge, and helped them become better teachers, with time management and reflection the biggest challenges. The Undergraduate Certificate of Veterinary Medical Education was seen as a good teaching foundation, while working toward the AFHEA provided some insight into higher education and academic careers. A structured teaching program offers students the opportunity to develop their learning and reflection both as students and future educators.

Development and Evaluation of a Faculty-Based Accredited Continuing Professional Development Route for Teaching and Learning.

This article characterizes and evaluates the development of an accredited, in-house, faculty-based teaching recognition scheme aimed at supporting clinicians and academics to achieve Advance HE Fellowship recognition. The scheme takes 6 to 24 months to complete and forms part of an institution-wide scheme. The evaluation covered 44 months, collecting data on participation rates across the school and 21 semi-structured interviews across 16 staff participants. We describe the outcomes measured alongside key perceived benefits and challenges to support the implementation of similar schemes elsewhere. Across 130 academic staff, there was 61% engagement. In interviews, 11 participants characterized benefits in terms of changes to their teaching, such as adopting new strategies for differing class sizes, and highlighted the benefit of accessible and context-specific development opportunities designed specifically for STEMM (science, technology, engineering, mathematics, and medicine) practitioners and clinicians. Motivations for participating were mainly intrinsic (69%), with international professional recognition also featured (61%, n = 10). Of the 23 participants who withdrew, the largest subgroup (39%) withdrew because they had left the institution, and 35% withdrew because of a lack of time, which encompassed a range of issues. We outline recommendations for implementing similar schemes including protected time, accessible development opportunities, and support for mentors.

Developing Miller's Pyramid to Support Students' Assessment Literacy.

Assessment literacy is increasingly recognized as an important concept to consider when developing assessment strategies for courses and programs. Assessment literacy approaches support students in their understanding of assessment expectations and help them both understand and optimize their performance in assessment. In this teaching tip, a model for assessment literacy that builds on the well-known Miller's Pyramid model for assessment in clinical disciplines is proposed and contextualized. The model progresses thinking from assessment methods themselves to consideration of the activities that need to be built into curricula to ensure that assessment literacy is addressed at each level of the pyramid. The teaching tip provides specific examples at each of the levels. Finally, the relevance of this work to overall curriculum design is emphasized.

Success at Veterinary School: Evaluating the Influence of Intake Variables on Year-1 Examination Performance.

A major challenge in admissions to veterinary medical degrees is to select those students most suitable for clinical training programs and careers from a large pool of applicants with very high academic ability. Predicting the success of students in a veterinary course is challenging, and relatively few objective studies have been undertaken to identify factors that facilitate progression through this educational experience. Prior educational attainment is considered by some to be a good predictor of success at undergraduate level. The aims of this study were to analyze intake data such as educational history and demographic factors of students entering the University of Edinburgh and to investigate possible relationships between these data and academic performance in the first year at veterinary school. Data were collated for three veterinary intakes, including school qualification, subjects, grades, grade point average (GPA), degree classification, domicile, gender, and age. Performance was measured by marks achieved in first-year veterinary degree examinations. Relationships between marks and the influence of intake variables were statistically analyzed via ANOVA. For school-leaving entrants, the presence of straight A grades in school was linked to better exam performance. Students with an A grade in Chemistry or Biology performed better; A grades in Mathematics and Physics did not show such a consistent linkage with performance. Higher GPA was associated with better performance in first year for students in a graduate entry program. This study shows prior educational attainment does appear to be linked with subsequent performance in the first year at veterinary school.

Exploring the Link between Mindset and Psychological Well-Being among Veterinary Students.

This study set out to improve our understanding of potential pedagogical factors that may influence the mental health of veterinary students. Previous research has demonstrated that the type of feedback given to children by parents and teachers can strongly influence young people's beliefs in their ability to modify their intelligence-their "mindset." There is also evidence that we can change the mindset of students relating to their intelligence by changing the methods by which we teach and assess. We used a paper-based questionnaire to assess mindset and psychological well-being in veterinary students (n=148). We found an association linking students' mindset to their intelligence and their psychological well-being. Students who believed that their level of intelligence was fixed had significantly lower scores on five out of six areas of psychological well-being compared to students who believed that their intelligence was malleable. Giving process rather than person feedback and reducing assessment methods that encourage comparison with other students could increase the proportion of our students with a growth mindset and, if the association we identified is causal, improve their psychological well-being.

Getting Started with Peer-Assisted Learning in a Veterinary Curriculum.

Peer-Assisted Learning (PAL) methodologies that involve students teaching other students have been shown to be valid and effective in a variety of disciplines and are gaining increasing interest within veterinary medical education. PAL has been formally embedded within the undergraduate veterinary clinical skills curriculum at the Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies (R(D)SVS), Edinburgh, since 2009 (and informally for several years before this) and has been delivered successfully to over one thousand first-year tutees by over one thousand fourth-year tutors (in their penultimate clinical year). This "teaching tip" article therefore aims to provide an informative overview of PAL for colleagues who may be interested in the methodology and to give practical tips as to how it can be successfully implemented in a veterinary degree program. We will summarize key evidence from the literature, provide a detailed example of how PAL has been implemented and optimized in our own veterinary degree program, include a subset of representative evaluation data from both tutors and tutees, and then conclude by providing colleagues with practical tips and resources (such as planning checklists and lesson plan templates) for implementing a PAL activity at their own school.

Adaptive Comparative Judgment: A Tool to Support Students' Assessment Literacy.

Comparative judgment in assessment is a process whereby repeated comparison of two items (e.g., assessment answers) can allow an accurate ranking of all the submissions to be achieved. In adaptive comparative judgment (ACJ), technology is used to automate the process and present pairs of pieces of work over iterative cycles. An online ACJ system was used to present students with work prepared by a previous cohort at the same stage of their studies. Objective marks given to the work by experienced faculty were compared to the rankings given to the work by a cohort of veterinary students (n=154). Each student was required to review and judge 20 answers provided by the previous cohort to a free-text short answer question. The time that students spent on the judgment tasks was recorded, and students were asked to reflect on their experiences after engaging with the task. There was a strong positive correlation between student ranking and faculty marking. A weak positive correlation was found between the time students spent on the judgments and their performance on the part of their own examination that contained questions in the same format. Slightly less than half of the students agreed that the exercise was a good use of their time, but 78% agreed that they had learned from the process. Qualitative data highlighted different levels of benefit from the simplest aspect of learning more about the topic to an appreciation of the more generic lessons to be learned.

Recognising and developing students as teachers: Introduction of a novel Undergraduate Certificate in Veterinary Medical Education.

A key responsibility of healthcare professionals is the education of clients/patients, colleagues and students undertaking placements. Peer-assisted learning (PAL) has been incorporated in our veterinary medicine programme for a number of years. The aim of this project was to develop a mechanism to formally recognise the important role that students play in the School's teaching and learning processes and foster students as partners in education through the development of a novel Undergraduate Certificate in Veterinary Medical Education (UCVME). Students and veterinarians were surveyed in order to inform the design of the programme. The programme is modular and aligned with the UK Professional Standards Framework (UKPSF). Students enrol in their third year, undertaking core and elective components, with completion over the final three years of the degree. The UCVME has been positively received, with 30 of 160 third year students enrolling in the programme's first year. Activities receiving credit and designed in partnership between staff and students have included: PAL sessions, widening participation school educational workshops and client education events. This initiative has created numerous student-driven educational opportunities. It is hoped that this programme will facilitate the educational training of students and enhance employability and career satisfaction.

Which professional (non-technical) competencies are most important to the success of graduate veterinarians? A Best Evidence Medical Education (BEME) systematic review: BEME Guide No. 38.

BACKGROUND: Despite the growing prominence of professional (non-technical) competencies in veterinary education, the evidence to support their importance to veterinary graduates is unclear. AIM: To summarize current evidence within the veterinary literature for the importance of professional competencies to graduate success. METHODS: A systematic search of electronic databases was conducted (CAB Abstracts, Web of Science, PubMed, PsycINFO, ERIC, Australian and British Education Index, Dissertations & Theses) from 1988 to 2015 and limited to the veterinary discipline (veterinar* term required). Evidence was sought from consensus-based competence frameworks, surveys of stakeholder perceptions, and empirical evidence linked to relevant outcomes (e.g. employability, client satisfaction or compliance). Data extraction was completed by two independent reviewers and included a quality assessment of each source. RESULTS: Fifty-two sources were included in the review, providing evidence from expert frameworks (10 sources), stakeholder perceptions (30 sources, including one from the previous category), and empirical research (13 sources). Communication skills were the only competency to be well-supported by all three categories of evidence. Other competencies supported by multiple sources of empirical evidence include empathy, relationship-centered care, self-efficacy, and business skills. Other competencies perceived to be relatively more important included awareness of limitations, professional values, critical thinking, collaboration, and resilience. CONCLUSIONS: This review has highlighted the comparatively weak body of evidence supporting the importance of professional competencies for veterinary graduate success, with the exception of communication skills. However we stress this is more indicative of the scarcity of high-quality veterinary-based education research in the field, than of the true priority of these competencies.

Development, Evaluation, and Evolution of a Peer Support Program in Veterinary Medical Education.

The majority of peer support programs in UK universities focus on academic support (e.g., through peer-assisted learning programs). Following student consultation, a pilot pastoral-based student peer support program was developed and implemented in a UK veterinary school. Thirty-one students were trained in the pilot year, and continued with the program to the end of the academic year (and beyond). The trainees were asked for feedback at the end of training and at the end of the year; the rest of the student body was surveyed as to their perception of the peer support program at the end of the year. Feedback from the training (N=19) was positive, with themes of enhanced self-development, improved communication skills, and bonding with other trainees. The wider student body responded (N=497) with concerns over confidentiality within a small community and distrust due to the competitive environment. Despite this, however, most students (74%) agreed that having peer support available created a supportive atmosphere, even if they did not personally plan on using the program. The paper concludes with a description of the changes being made to the program as a result of the evaluation.

Assessment literacy: definition, implementation, and implications.

This paper explores the current notion of assessment literacy and describes delivery and evaluation of an intervention to support its development in two different cohorts in a veterinary curriculum. Before the intervention, two cohorts (Cohort A, first-year students; Cohort B, third-year students) were surveyed on their expectations and understanding of assessment. The new students expressed uncertainty about their understanding of the assessment process: 51% disagreed that they had a good understanding. As expected, more experienced students had a better understanding, although 30% still disagreed that they had a good understanding of the process. A workshop supporting the development of assessment literacy was implemented, giving students an opportunity to evaluate authentic student work of differing standards. Most of the students in both cohorts found the session helpful in terms of their understanding of different standards in assessments (92% and 97%), and most found it helped them understand how to prepare for the degree examination better (75% and 87%). Student grades were recorded in the workshop involving Cohort B, revealing a large variation in students' ability to grade other students' work accurately, with bias ranging from 22% to -25%. Finally, faculty views on student preparedness for assessment were also explored and compared to student views. Disagreement existed between faculty regarding perceived student preparedness for assessment, and significantly more faculty than students thought that students had a good understanding of how their assessments would be graded. The implications of these results for future work and faculty development are discussed.

Development and evaluation of a virtual slaughterhouse simulator for training and educating veterinary students.

Veterinary surgeons working on farms and food-processing establishments play a fundamental role in safeguarding both public health and the welfare of animals under their care. An essential part of veterinary public health (VPH) undergraduate training in the UK involves students undertaking placements within abattoirs, a practice that remains vital to the educational experience of future veterinary professionals. However, several issues have adversely affected the ability of students to gain such extramural placements. For this reason, the Virtual Slaughterhouse Simulator (VSS) was developed to strengthen and enhance undergraduate VPH teaching at the Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, enabling students to explore a realistic abattoir work environment with embedded educational activities. The aim of this research project was to evaluate the VSS as a teaching and learning tool for training and educating veterinary students. Ninety-eight final-year veterinary students engaged with the prototype VSS, followed by assessment of their knowledge and behavior when faced with a "real-life" abattoir situation. Further evaluation of their experiences with the VSS was carried out using questionnaires and focus groups. The results of this investigation show that there is the potential for the VSS to enhance the student learning experience in basic abattoir procedures. This innovative tool provides a visually based learning resource that can support traditional lectures and practical classes and can also be used to stimulate interactive problem-solving activities embedded in the relevant context.

Testing anatomy: Dissecting spatial and non-spatial knowledge in multiple-choice question assessment.

Limited research has been conducted on the spatial ability of veterinary students and how this is evaluated within anatomy assessments. This study describes the creation and evaluation of a split design multiple-choice question (MCQ) assessment (totaling 30 questions divided into 15 non-spatial MCQs and 15 spatial MCQs). Two cohorts were tested, one cohort received a 2D teaching method in the academic year 2014/15 (male = 15/108, female 93/108), and the second a 3D teaching method in the academic year 2015/16 (male 14/98, female 84/98). The evaluation of the MCQ demonstrated strong reliability (KR-20 = 0.71 2D and 0.63 3D) meaning the MCQ consistently tests the same construct. Factor analysis of the MCQ provides evidence of validity of the split design of the assessment (RR = 1.11, p = 0.013). Neither cohort outperformed on the non-spatial questions (p > 0.05), however, the 3D cohort performed statistically significantly higher on the spatial questions (p = 0.013). The results of this research support the design of a new anatomy assessment aimed at testing both anatomy knowledge and the problem-solving aspects of anatomical spatial ability. Furthermore, a 3D teaching method was shown to increase students' performance on anatomy questions testing spatial ability.

Embedding Assessment Literacy Can Enhance Graduate Attribute Development in a Biomedical Sciences Curriculum.

This paper describes the successful implementation of an assessment literacy strategy within a Biomedical Sciences degree. Teaching was aligned with an assessment literacy framework and aimed to prepare undergraduates for a literature comprehension assessment. Students were introduced to the assessment purpose and an adapted Miller's pyramid model illustrated how the assessment contributed to competency development during their degree. Students read primary research papers and answered questions relating to the publications. They were then introduced to the processes of assessment and collaboratively graded answers of different standards. Finally, student and faculty grades were compared, differences considered, and key characteristics of answers discussed. Most students reported that they understood more about assessment standards than prior to the intervention [139/159 (87.4%)] and felt it had helped prepare them for their exam [138/159 (86.8%)]. The majority also reported they had increased confidence in evaluating data [118/159 (74%)], communicating their reasoning [113/159 (71%)] and considering what a reader needs to know [127/159 (79.9%)]. Students were asked to state the most important thing they had learned from the assessment literacy teaching. Notably, no responses referred to domain-specific knowledge. 129 free text responses were mapped to the University of Edinburgh graduate attribute framework. 93 (72%) statements mapped to the graduate attribute category "Research and Enquiry," 66 (51.16%) mapped to "Communication" and 21 (16.27%) mapped to "Personal and Intellectual Autonomy." To explore any longer-term impact of the assessment literacy teaching, a focus group was held with students from the same cohort, 2 years after the original intervention. Themes from this part of the study included that teaching had provided insights into standards and expectations for the assessment and the benefits of domain specific knowledge. A variety of aspects related to graduate attributes were also identified. Here, assessment literacy as a vehicle for graduate attribute development was an unexpected outcome. We propose that by explicitly engaging students with purpose, process, standards, and expectations, assessment literacy strategies may be used to successfully raise awareness of developmental progression, and enhance skills, aptitudes, and dispositions beneficial to Biomedical Sciences academic achievement and life after university.

Experiences with audio feedback in a veterinary curriculum.

On a national scale in the United Kingdom, student surveys have served to highlight areas within higher education that are not achieving high student satisfaction. Of particular concern to the veterinary and medical disciplines are the persistently poor levels of student satisfaction with academic feedback compared to students in other subjects. In this study we describe experiences with audio feedback trials in a veterinary curriculum. Students received audio feedback on either an in-course laboratory practical report or on an in-course multiple-choice test. Shortly after receiving their feedback, students were surveyed using an electronic questionnaire. In both courses, more students strongly agreed that audio feedback was helpful compared to either text-based (course A) or whole-class (course B) feedback. When asked to reflect on the helpfulness of various types of feedback they had received, audio feedback was rated less helpful than individual discussion with a member of staff (course A and course B), more helpful than peer discussion or automated feedback (course A and course B), and more helpful than written comments or whole-class review sessions (course B). From a faculty perspective, in course A, use of audio feedback was more efficient than handwritten feedback. In course B, the additional time commitment required was approximately 5 hours. Major themes in the qualitative data included the personal and individual nature of the feedback, quantity of feedback, improvement in students' insight into the process of marking, and the capacity of audio feedback to encourage and motivate.

Peer generation of multiple-choice questions: student engagement and experiences.

A free online system for generation of multiple-choice questions (PeerWise) was implemented in three courses (course A, B, and C) in two different years (second and third year) of a veterinary degree program. Students were asked to author questions, and answer and rate each other's questions. Student experiences of the system were explored using an online survey. The majority of students in both years either agreed or strongly agreed that both authoring and answering questions was helpful for their studies and wanted to use the system again in future courses. Thematic analysis highlighted students' views that engaging with the resource increased breadth and depth of knowledge and understanding and was very useful for revision purposes. There was a statistically significant difference between students in second and third year regarding whether students felt it was necessary for academic staff to be involved in the review process. Thematic analysis of this aspect identified issues relating to confidence in the ability of the peer group and the need for reassurance in the second-year group. Student engagement with the system was correlated with examination performance. In courses A and B there was a positive correlation between number of questions answered and examination performance, in course C there was no correlation. This study highlights the benefits of peer activity around question generation and proposes that such activities are an efficient and effective means to support student learning.