Role of plasma membrane lipid composition on cellular homeostasis: learning from cell line models expressing fatty acid desaturases.

Experimental evidence has suggested that plasma membrane (PM)-associated signaling and hence cell metabolism and viability depend on lipid composition and organization. The aim of the present work is to develop a cell model to study the endogenous polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) effect on PM properties and analyze its influence on cholesterol (Chol) homeostasis. We have previously shown that by using a cell line over-expressing stearoyl-CoA-desaturase, membrane composition and organization coordinate cellular pathways involved in Chol efflux and cell viability by different mechanisms. Now, we expanded our studies to a cell model over-expressing both Δ5 and Δ6 desaturases, which resulted in a permanently higher PUFA content in PM. Furthermore, this cell line showed increased PM fluidity, Chol storage, and mitochondrial activity. In addition, human apolipoprotein A-I-mediated Chol removal was less efficient in these cells than in the corresponding control. Taken together, our results suggested that the cell functionality is preserved by regulating PM organization and Chol exportation and homeostasis.

Thymulin-based gene therapy and pituitary function in animal models of aging.

Thymulin is a thymic hormone exclusively produced by the thymic epithelial cells. After its discovery and initial characterization in the 1970s, it was demonstrated that thymulin production and secretion is strongly influenced by the neuroendocrine system. Conversely, a growing core of information, to be reviewed here, points to thymulin as a hypophysiotropic peptide. Additionally, thymulin was shown to possess anti-inflammatory and analgesic properties in the brain. In recent years, a synthetic DNA sequence coding for a biologically active analog of thymulin, metFTS, was constructed and cloned in different adenoviral vectors. These include bidirectional regulatable Tet-Off vector systems that simultaneously express metFTS and green fluorescent protein and that can be downregulated reversibly by the addition of the antibiotic doxycycline. A number of recent studies suggest that thymulin gene therapy may be a suitable therapeutic strategy to prevent some of the endocrine and reproductive alterations that typically appear in congenitally athymic (nude) mice, taken as a suitable model of neuroendocrine and reproductive aging. The present article briefly reviews the literature on the physiology of the thymulin-pituitary axis as well as on the new molecular tools available to exploit the therapeutic potential of thymulin.

Membrane organization and regulation of cellular cholesterol homeostasis.

An excess of intracellular free cholesterol (Chol) is cytotoxic, and its homeostasis is crucial for cell viability. Apolipoprotein A-I (apoA-I) is a highly efficient Chol acceptor because it activates complex cellular pathways that tend to mobilize and export Chol from cellular depots. We hypothesize that membrane composition and/or organization is strongly involved in Chol homeostasis. To test this hypothesis, we constructed a cell line overexpressing stearoyl coenzyme A (CoA) desaturase (SCD cells), which modifies plasma membrane (PM) composition by the enrichment of monounsaturated fatty acids, and determined this effect on membrane properties, cell viability, and Chol homeostasis. PM in SCD cells has a higher ratio of phospholipids to sphingomyelin and is slightly enriched in Chol. These cells showed an increase in the ratio of cholesteryl esters to free Chol; they were more resistant to Chol toxicity, and they exported more caveolin than control cells. The data suggest that cell functionality is preserved by regulating membrane fluidity and Chol exportation and storage.

Potential of gene therapy for restoration of endocrine thymic function in thymus-deficient animal models.

The aim of the present article is to discuss the potential of gene therapy for thymic hormones as a novel therapeutic strategy to treat dyshomeostatic conditions associated with congenital athymia or hypofunction of the endocrine thymus. Recent studies using an adenoviral vector harboring a synthetic gene for the thymic peptide thymulin are reviewed. This adenoviral vector was injected intramuscularly in thymectomized and nude mice as well as in thymectomized rats. Transduced myocytes acted as an ectopic source of thymulin thus restoring circulating thymulin levels to normal values. This restorative effect was long lasting (several months) even though an adenoviral vector was used. In the rat brain, adenovirally-mediated delivery of the synthetic gene for thymulin achieved longer expression than in the case of adenovirally-delivered reporter genes, which is consistent with the reported antiinflammatory activity of thymulin in the brain. Furthermore, neonatal thymulin gene therapy in nude female mice was able to prevent the pituitary and ovarian alterations that typically occur in this mutant after puberty. Neonatal thymulin gene therapy in nude mice was able to prevent some of the alterations in lipid metabolism that develop during adult life in congenitally athymic mice. We conclude that the availability of the above biotechnological tools should boost basic studies on the molecular biology of thymulin and should also allow an assessment of the potential of gene therapy to restore circulating thymulin levels in thymodeficient animal models and eventually, in humans.

Partial prevention of hepatic lipid alterations in nude mice by neonatal thymulin gene therapy.

During adult life athymic (nude) male mice display not only a severe T-cell-related immunodeficiency but also endocrine imbalances and a moderate hyperglycemia. We studied the impact of congenital athymia on hepatic lipid composition and also assessed the ability of neonatal thymulin gene therapy to prevent the effects of athymia. We constructed a recombinant adenoviral vector, RAd-metFTS, expressing a synthetic DNA sequence encoding met-FTS, an analog of the thymic peptide facteur thymique sérique (FTS), whose Zn-bound biologically active form is known as thymulin. On postnatal day 1-2 homozygous (nu/nu) nude and heterozygous (nu/+) mice were injected with 10(8) pfu of RAd-metFTS or RAd-betagal (control vector) intramuscularly. The animals were processed at 52 d of age. Serum thymulin, glycemia, hepatic phospholipid FA composition and free and esterified cholesterol were determined. Adult homozygous male nudes were significantly (P < 0.01) hyperglycemic when compared with their heterozygous counterparts (2.04 vs. 1.40 g/L, respectively). The relative percentage of 16:0, 18:1 n-9, and 18:1n-7 FA was lower, whereas that of 18:0, 20:4n-6, and 22:6n-3 FA was higher, in hepatic phospholipid (PL) of nu/nu animals as compared with their nu/+ counterparts. Some of these alterations, such as that in the relative content of 22:6n-3 in liver PL and the unsaturation index, were completely or partially prevented by neonatal thymulin gene therapy. We conclude that the thymus influences lipid metabolism and that thymulin is involved in this modulatory activity.

Effects of fenofibrate and insulin on the biosynthesis of unsaturated fatty acids in streptozotocin diabetic rats.

Both insulin and PPAR-alpha up-modulate hepatic Delta9, Delta6 and Delta5 desaturating enzymes involved in the biosynthesis of mono- and polyunsaturated fatty acids. Currently, we have examined for 9 days the independent and simultaneous effects of daily glargine insulin and fenofibrate administration on the insulinemia, glycemia, hepatic acyl-CoA oxidase activity and mRNAs and enzymatic activities of stearoyl-CoA desaturase-1 (SCD-1) and Delta5 desaturase in streptozotocin diabetic rats. Glargine insulin depressed the hyperglycemia of diabetic rats at 4h, but not after 24h of injection. Fenofibrate increased the radioimmunoreactive insulinemia in non-diabetic rats without changing the glycemia. Insulin increased the mRNAs and activities of SCD-1 and Delta5 desaturase depressed in diabetic rats. Fenofibrate increased acyl-CoA oxidase activity, and the mRNAs and activities of both desaturating enzymes in non-diabetic, diabetic and insulin-treated diabetic rats, but was less effective in the mRNAs modification of diabetic animals. Therefore, insulin, and fenofibrate through PPAR-alpha activation, enhance liver mRNAs and activities of SCD-1 and Delta5 desaturases independently and synergistically through different mechanisms. Insulin and fenofibrate independently increased the 18:1/18:0 ratio in liver lipids, increasing the fluidity of the membranes. The 20:4/18:2 ratio was maintained. Fenofibrate increased palmitic acid, but decreased stearic acid percentage in liver lipids.

Amyloidogenic propensity of a natural variant of human apolipoprotein A-I: stability and interaction with ligands.

A number of naturally occurring mutations of human apolipoprotein A-I (apoA-I) have been associated with hereditary amyloidoses. The molecular mechanisms involved in amyloid-associated pathology remain largely unknown. Here we examined the effects of the Arg173Pro point mutation in apoA-I on the structure, stability, and aggregation propensity, as well as on the ability to bind to putative ligands. Our results indicate that the mutation induces a drastic loss of stability, and a lower efficiency to bind to phospholipid vesicles at physiological pH, which could determine the observed higher tendency to aggregate as pro-amyloidogenic complexes. Incubation under acidic conditions does not seem to induce significant desestabilization or aggregation tendency, neither does it contribute to the binding of the mutant to sodium dodecyl sulfate. While the binding to this detergent is higher for the mutant as compared to wt apoA-I, the interaction of the Arg173Pro variant with heparin depends on pH, being lower at pH 5.0 and higher than wt under physiological pH conditions. We suggest that binding to ligands as heparin or other glycosaminoglycans could be key events tuning the fine details of the interaction of apoA-I variants with the micro-environment, and probably eliciting the toxicity of these variants in hereditary amyloidoses.

Dietary cholesterol modulates delta6 and delta9 desaturase mRNAs and enzymatic activity in rats fed a low-eFA diet.

The effects of a 1% addition of cholesterol to a diet low in EFA on FA desaturases were examined. The administration of cholesterol markedly increased the esterified cholesterol content in microsomes and total liver lipids from the first day, whereas the proportion of free cholesterol remained unaltered throughout the treatment. An excellent homeostasis in the free cholesterol content was apparently evoked by the acyl-CoA cholesterol acyltransferase. The cholesterol esters were mainly oleate, palmitate, and stearate, and the addition of cholesterol increased the relative proportions of cholesterol palmitoleate and oleate. The addition of cholesterol to a low-EFA diet induced, as in animals fed a high-EFA diet, a marked increase in liver stearoyl-CoA desaturase-1 mRNA and enzyme activity. This increased activity apparently evoked a similar enhancement of palmitoleic and oleic acids in total and microsomal liver lipids. The cholesterol-rich diet depressed the liver A6 and delta5 desaturase activity. However, the abundance of delta6 desaturase mRNA was not modified throughout the treatment. This indicates that the depressive effect is evoked at a step beyond that controlled by the mRNA level. The depression of both enzymatic activities was consistent with the decrease in the percentages of arachidonic acid and DHA in total and microsomal liver lipids. Taken together, these results indicate that through its modulating effect on the desaturases, dietary cholesterol may lead an animal or human fed low-EFA diet to a true deficiency by the decreased synthesis of the highly polyunsaturated acids derived from linoleic and alpha-linolenic acids.

Desaturase activities in rat model of insulin resistance induced by a sucrose-rich diet.

A sucrose-rich diet, as compared with a similar starch diet, induces a time-dependent typical noninsulin-dependent diabetes syndrome characterized by insulin resistance in rats. Within the first 3 wk, there was glucose intolerance associated with hyperinsulinemia, hypertriglyceridemia, and high plasma FFA. In this study, we examined the effect of the sucrose-rich diet vs. the starch diet during short- (3 wk) and longterm treatment (6 mon) on hepatic delta9, delta6, and delta5 desaturases. These enzymes modulate monounsaturated FA and PUFA biosynthesis, respectively. Sucrose feeding (3 wk) caused an initial hyperinsulinemia that was normalized within 6 mon. In the early period (3 wk), stearoyl-CoA desaturase-1 (SCD-1) mRNA and activity were decreased, whereas delta6 desaturase mRNA abundance and delta6 and delta5 desaturase activities remained unchanged. After 6 mon of sucrose feeding, activities of the delta9, delta6, and delta5 desaturases were each increased. The SCD-1 and delta6 desaturase mRNA were also correspondingly higher. These increases were consistent with an increase in oleic acid, the 20:4/18:2 ratio, and 22:4n-6 and 22:5n-6 acids in liver and muscle lipids. On the other hand, the percentage of 22:6n-3 acid was decreased. In conclusion, a sucrose-rich diet after 6 mon induces an increase in rat liver SCD-1 and delta6 desaturase mRNA and enzymatic activities that are opposite to the changes reported in insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. It appears that neither blood insulin levels nor insulin resistance is a factor affecting the delta9, delta6, and delta5 desaturase changes in mRNA and activity found with the sucrose-rich diet.

Hepatic delta9, delta6, and delta5 desaturations in non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus eSS rats.

Both diabetes mellitus type 1 and diabetes mellitus type 2 are widespread diseases that alter carbohydrate and lipid metabolism. e Stilmann-Salgado (eSS) rats are experimental animals that spontaneously evolve to a state similar to that of young people affected by non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (NIDDM; type 2). Using 6-mon-old eSS rats that, according to the literature [Martinez, S.M., Tarrés, M.C., Montenegro, S., Milo, R., Picena, J.C., Figueroa, N., and Rabasa, S.R. (1988) Spontaneous Diabetes in eSS Rats, Acta Diabetol. Lat. 25, 303-313], had already developed insulin resistance, we investigated the changes evoked on delta9, delta6, and delta5 liver desaturases. The abundance of mRNA and enzymatic activities were measured, as well as the FA composition of liver microsomal lipids. Compared to control rats, the mRNA content and activity of SCD-1 (stearoyl CoA-desaturase, isoform of the delta9 desaturase) were significantly higher, whereas the mRNA and activities of delta6 and delta5 desaturases were not significantly modified. Correspondingly, the proportion of 18:1n-9 and the ratios of 18:1n-9/18:0 and 16:1/16:0 in lipids were significantly increased, whereas the proportion of 20:4n-6 was unaltered. These effects were found while glycemia was constant or increased. The results are completely opposite those described in insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (type 1), in which a depression of all the desaturases is found. They suggest that in eSS rats, the activities of the desaturases were not modified by an insulin-resistance effect. Moreover, we suggest that the enhancement of SCD-1 activity might be considered as another typical sign of the NIDDM syndrome, because it has also been found in other animal models of NIDDM, for example, the ones evoked by the sucrose-rich diet and in the Zucker rat.

Human apolipoprotein A-I natural variants: molecular mechanisms underlying amyloidogenic propensity.

Human apolipoprotein A-I (apoA-I)-derived amyloidosis can present with either wild-type (Wt) protein deposits in atherosclerotic plaques or as a hereditary form in which apoA-I variants deposit causing multiple organ failure. More than 15 single amino acid replacement amyloidogenic apoA-I variants have been described, but the molecular mechanisms involved in amyloid-associated pathology remain largely unknown. Here, we have investigated by fluorescence and biochemical approaches the stabilities and propensities to aggregate of two disease-associated apoA-I variants, apoA-IGly26Arg, associated with polyneuropathy and kidney dysfunction, and apoA-ILys107-0, implicated in amyloidosis in severe atherosclerosis. Results showed that both variants share common structural properties including decreased stability compared to Wt apoA-I and a more flexible structure that gives rise to formation of partially folded states. Interestingly, however, distinct features appear to determine their pathogenic mechanisms. ApoA-ILys107-0 has an increased propensity to aggregate at physiological pH and in a pro-inflammatory microenvironment than Wt apoA-I, whereas apoA-IGly26Arg elicited macrophage activation, thus stimulating local chronic inflammation. Our results strongly suggest that some natural mutations in apoA-I variants elicit protein tendency to aggregate, but in addition the specific interaction of different variants with macrophages may contribute to cellular stress and toxicity in hereditary amyloidosis.

Human apolipoprotein A-I-derived amyloid: its association with atherosclerosis.

Amyloidoses constitute a group of diseases in which soluble proteins aggregate and deposit extracellularly in tissues. Nonhereditary apolipoprotein A-I (apoA-I) amyloid is characterized by deposits of nonvariant protein in atherosclerotic arteries. Despite being common, little is known about the pathogenesis and significance of apoA-I deposition. In this work we investigated by fluorescence and biochemical approaches the impact of a cellular microenvironment associated with chronic inflammation on the folding and pro-amyloidogenic processing of apoA-I. Results showed that mildly acidic pH promotes misfolding, aggregation, and increased binding of apoA-I to extracellular matrix elements, thus favoring protein deposition as amyloid like-complexes. In addition, activated neutrophils and oxidative/proteolytic cleavage of the protein give rise to pro amyloidogenic products. We conclude that, even though apoA-I is not inherently amyloidogenic, it may produce non hereditary amyloidosis as a consequence of the pro-inflammatory microenvironment associated to atherogenesis.

Mobilization of lipid stores in Manduca sexta: cDNA cloning and developmental expression of fat body triglyceride lipase, TGL.

Fatty acids stored as triglycerides (TG) in the fat body serve as precursor in multiple processes including energy production and synthesis of cellular components. Mobilization of fatty acids from TG depends on the action of lipases. The fat body triglyceride lipase from Manduca sexta, MsTGL, is the only insect lipase that has been purified and characterized, so far. A TGL cDNA from M. sexta fat body encoding a 649 amino acid protein was cloned and its identity confirmed by mass spectrometry and Edman sequencing data of the purified protein. The protein sequence has conserved domains and residues of potential importance for the function and regulation of TGL activity. The expression of TGL and the lipase activity of fat body homogenates were studied in several developmental stages of M. sexta. TG-hydrolase activity of fat body increased as larva grew to the last instar and, then, decreased to minimal levels during pupa stage. Lipase activity was progressively restored in adult insects and reached maximum values at this stage. The fat body lipase activity from adult insects, 1-2 day after emergence, was 9-fold higher than that from 2 to 3 days old 5th-instar larvae. A good correlation was found between the abundance of TGL protein and the lipase activity of fat body homogenates. This correlation and the expression pattern of TGL throughout development are consistent with the notion that TGL is the main fat body TG lipase of M. sexta.

Thymus and aging: potential of gene therapy for restoration of endocrine thymic function in thymus-deficient animal models.

OBJECTIVE AND BACKGROUND: The aim of the present article is to discuss the potential of gene therapy for thymic hormones as a novel therapeutic strategy to treat dyshomeostatic states associated with athymia, as Di George syndrome, or hypothymic conditions like those associated with AIDS, chronic stress or aging. First we review the advantages of the athymic (nude) mouse as an animal model to implement experimental thymic hormone gene therapy strategies to restore endocrine thymic function. The aging rat, known to be markedly hypothymic, is also considered as an alternative model. METHODS AND EXPECTED RESULTS: The possibility of constructing adenoviral vectors harboring a synthetic gene for the thymic hormone thymulin is discussed. The adenoviral vector so constructed would then be injected intramuscularly in nude mice or senile rats. Transduced myocytes should then begin to act as an ectopic source of thymulin thus restoring circulating thymulin levels to normal youthful levels. CONCLUSION: We conclude that the implementation of thymulin gene therapy should provide novel biotechnological tools that will boost basic studies on the molecular biology of thymulin and would also allow an assessment of the potential of gene therapy to restore circulating thymulin levels in thymodeficient animal models.

Biochemistry of the evolution of Triatoma infestans: XII. Biosynthesis and secretion of a Very High Density Lipoprotein

Biosynthetic processes related to the production of an insect hexamerin, very high density lipoprotein (VHDL), have been examined in the fat body of fifth-instar nymph and adult Triatoma infestans. Fat bodies were incubated in vitro with [3H] leucine and the incubation media were precipitated using a specific antiserum. The SDS-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis followed by blotting on nitrocellulose showed that both larval and adult fat body secreted the VHDL subunit. Moreover, the radiolabel recovered in this subunit is indicative of the de novo synthesis. When the incubation medium was subjected to density gradient ultracentrifugation, a radiolabeled fraction was found at density 1.27 g/ml, value identical to the hemolymph circulating VHDL, indicating that the secreted apoprotein is combined with lipids. The SDS-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis and immunoblotting of this fraction corroborated the presence of the VHDL-apoprotein. These results demonstrate that the fat body of T. infestans is able to synthesize the protein subunit which is associated to lipids as a lipoprotein particle that is released into the medium as VHDL.

Biochemistry of the evolution of Triatoma infestans: XI. Hemolymph lipophorin

Se aisló y purificó la lipoforina del T.infestans a partir de hemolinfa de machos adultos por ultracentrifugación en gradiente de densidad en dos etapas. Esta lipoproteína tiene una densidad de 1.10 g/ml y está constituida por 53% de proteínas y 47% de lípidos. El radio de Stokes (Rs) de la molécula, determinado por cromatografía de filtración en gel, es aproximadamente de 73A y e;l peso molecular (Mr) calculado por el método de Margolis, es de 743 000 daltons. La lipoforina contiene dos apoproteínas: apolipoforina I (apoLp-I) con Mr = 255 000 y apolipoforina II (apoLp-II) con Mr = 78 000, siendo ambas glicosiladas. La composición de aminoácidos de la apoLp-I y de la apoLp-II presenta un elevado contenido de aspartato, glutamato y leucina y muy pequeña cantidad de metionina y cisteína. Los lípidos de la lipoforina comprenden: diacilgliceroles (41.4% de los lípidos totales), fosfolípidos (31.5%), hidrocarburos (12.2%), ácidos grasos libres (6.1%), colesterol (4.7%) y triacilgliceroles (4.1%). La fosfatidiletanolamina es el fosfolípido predominante con cantidades menores de fosfatidilcolina. Al tratar la lipoforina con tripsina, la apoLp-I sufre ruptura proteolítica, mientras que la apoLp-II es resistente. La anisotropía de fluorescencia del difenilhexatrieno (DPH) incluido en la lipoforina señala una fuerte interacción lípido-apoproteína, la cual no se modifica después de una extensa proteólisis de la apoLp-I con tripsina. Durante la tripsinización de la lipoproteína no se detectó...