Specific ABA-independent tomato transcriptome reprogramming under abiotic stress combination.

Crops often have to face several abiotic stresses simultaneously, and under these conditions, the plant's response significantly differs from that observed under a single stress. However, up to the present, most of the molecular markers identified for increasing plant stress tolerance have been characterized under single abiotic stresses, which explains the unexpected results found when plants are tested under real field conditions. One important regulator of the plant's responses to abiotic stresses is abscisic acid (ABA). The ABA signaling system engages many stress-responsive genes, but many others do not respond to ABA treatments. Thus, the ABA-independent pathway, which is still largely unknown, involves multiple signaling pathways and important molecular components necessary for the plant's adaptation to climate change. In the present study, ABA-deficient tomato mutants (flacca, flc) were subjected to salinity, heat, or their combination. An in-depth RNA-seq analysis revealed that the combination of salinity and heat led to a strong reprogramming of the tomato transcriptome. Thus, of the 685 genes that were specifically regulated under this combination in our flc mutants, 463 genes were regulated by ABA-independent systems. Among these genes, we identified six transcription factors (TFs) that were significantly regulated, belonging to the R2R3-MYB family. A protein-protein interaction network showed that the TFs SlMYB50 and SlMYB86 were directly involved in the upregulation of the flavonol biosynthetic pathway-related genes. One of the most novel findings of the study is the identification of the involvement of some important ABA-independent TFs in the specific plant response to abiotic stress combination. Considering that ABA levels dramatically change in response to environmental factors, the study of ABA-independent genes that are specifically regulated under stress combination may provide a remarkable tool for increasing plant resilience to climate change.

Multi-Omics Exploration of ABA Involvement in Identifying Unique Molecular Markers for Single and Combined Stresses in tomato plants.

Over the past decade, our research group has found that plant responses to combined abiotic stresses are unique and cannot be inferred from studying plants exposed to individual stresses. Understanding how adaptative plant mechanisms integrate from stress perception to biochemical and physiological adjustments is a major challenge in abiotic stress signaling studies. Considering abscisic acid (ABA) as a key regulator in plant abiotic stress responses, in our study, ABA-deficient plants (flc) exposed to single or combined salinity and heat stresses were evaluated and different -omics analyses were conducted. Significant changes in biomass, photosynthesis, ions, transcripts, and metabolites occurred in mutant plants under single or combined stresses. Exogenous ABA application in flc mutants did not fully recover plant phenotypes or metabolic levels but induced cellular reprogramming with changes in specific markers. Multi-omics analysis aimed to identify ABA-dependent, ABA-independent, or stress-dependent markers in plant responses to single or combined stresses. We demonstrated that studying different -omics as a whole led to the identification of specific markers for each stress condition that were not detectable when each -omic was studied individually. This resource article provides an important and novel reference for scientists working in the field of plant abiotic stress. Future exploration of the transcriptomic, ionomic and metabolomic data presented in this study could lead to the identification of new pathways and genes associated with ABA signaling processes. These findings may be utilized to enhance crop resilience to heat waves, salinity, and their combination, contributing to addressing food security challenges in a climate change scenario.

Developing climate-resilient crops: improving plant tolerance to stress combination.

Global warming and climate change are driving an alarming increase in the frequency and intensity of different abiotic stresses, such as droughts, heat waves, cold snaps, and flooding, negatively affecting crop yields and causing food shortages. Climate change is also altering the composition and behavior of different insect and pathogen populations adding to yield losses worldwide. Additional constraints to agriculture are caused by the increasing amounts of human-generated pollutants, as well as the negative impact of climate change on soil microbiomes. Although in the laboratory, we are trained to study the impact of individual stress conditions on plants, in the field many stresses, pollutants, and pests could simultaneously or sequentially affect plants, causing conditions of stress combination. Because climate change is expected to increase the frequency and intensity of such stress combination events (e.g., heat waves combined with drought, flooding, or other abiotic stresses, pollutants, and/or pathogens), a concentrated effort is needed to study how stress combination is affecting crops. This need is particularly critical, as many studies have shown that the response of plants to stress combination is unique and cannot be predicted from simply studying each of the different stresses that are part of the stress combination. Strategies to enhance crop tolerance to a particular stress may therefore fail to enhance tolerance to this specific stress, when combined with other factors. Here we review recent studies of stress combinations in different plants and propose new approaches and avenues for the development of stress combination- and climate change-resilient crops.

Interaction between Melatonin and NO: Action Mechanisms, Main Targets, and Putative Roles of the Emerging Molecule NOmela.

Melatonin (MEL), a ubiquitous indolamine molecule, has gained interest in the last few decades due to its regulatory role in plant metabolism. Likewise, nitric oxide (NO), a gasotransmitter, can also affect plant molecular pathways due to its function as a signaling molecule. Both MEL and NO can interact at multiple levels under abiotic stress, starting with their own biosynthetic pathways and inducing a particular signaling response in plants. Moreover, their interaction can result in the formation of NOmela, a very recently discovered nitrosated form of MEL with promising roles in plant physiology. This review summarizes the role of NO and MEL molecules during plant development and fruit ripening, as well as their interactions. Due to the impact of climate-change-related abiotic stresses on agriculture, this review also focuses on the role of these molecules in mediating abiotic stress tolerance and the main mechanisms by which they operate, from the upregulation of the entire antioxidant defense system to the post-translational modifications (PTMs) of important molecules. Their individual interaction and crosstalk with phytohormones and H2S are also discussed. Finally, we introduce and summarize the little information available about NOmela, an emerging and still very unknown molecule, but that seems to have a stronger potential than MEL and NO separately in mediating plant stress response.

Alternate bearing in fruit trees: fruit presence induces polar auxin transport in citrus and olive stem and represses IAA release from the bud.

In many fruit trees, heavy fruit load in one year reduces flowering in the following year, creating a biennial fluctuation in yield termed alternate bearing (AB). In subtropical trees, where flowering induction is mostly governed by the accumulation of chilling hours, fruit load is thought to generate a signal (AB signal) that blocks the perception of cold induction. Fruit removal during a heavy-fruit-load year is effective at inducing flowering only if performed one to a few months before the onset of the flowering induction period. We previously showed that following fruit removal, the content of the auxin indoleacetic acid (IAA) in citrus buds is reduced, suggesting that the hormone plays a role in the AB signal. Here, we demonstrate that fruit presence generates relatively strong polar auxin transport in citrus and olive stems. Upon fruit removal, polar auxin transport is reduced and allows auxin release from the bud. Furthermore, using immunolocalization, hormone, and gene expression analyses, we show that in citrus, IAA level in the bud and specifically in the apical meristem is reduced upon fruit removal. Overall, our data provide support for the notion that fruit presence generates an auxin signal in the bud, which may affect flowering induction.

Deciphering fruit sugar transport and metabolism from tolerant and sensitive tomato plants subjected to simulated field conditions.

In the current state of climate change, we must assume that abiotic stresses act together under natural field conditions, these will increase in the coming years. Therefore, in this report we investigated how sugar metabolism was affected under simulated field conditions, where plants faced high ambient temperatures and a low-quality water irrigation. Our studies were carried out on fruits of two tomato recombinant lines, a tolerant and a sensitive one exposed to the combination of heat and salinity. Two ripening stages (mature green and red ripe fruits) were used in our analyzes, where the gene expression levels of the main biosynthetic genes and transporters, enzymatic activities and compounds related to the synthesis, accumulation, and degradation of sugars in plants were analyzed. The tolerant line showed highly significant differences in red ripe fruits in comparison to the sensitive one under the simulated field conditions (35°C + 60 mM NaCl), with an overexpression of the genes SlFBP, SlSPS, SlSUS3, and SlNi. These expression patterns correlated with a higher activity of the enzymes FBP, SPS, SUS3, AI, and G6PDH, which resulted in the accumulation of fructose, glucose and UDP-glucose. Our results showed the advantage of using tomato recombinant lines for rescuing important traits, such as the resistance to some abiotic stresses, and for the identification of important molecular and metabolic markers that could be used to determine fruit quality in green or red maturity stages under detrimental environmental field conditions.

Root high-affinity K+ and Cs+ uptake and plant fertility in tomato plants are dependent on the activity of the high-affinity K+ transporter SlHAK5.

Root K+ acquisition is a key process for plant growth and development, extensively studied in the model plant Arabidopsis thaliana. Because important differences may exist among species, translational research supported by specific studies is needed in crops such as tomato. Here we present a reverse genetics study to demonstrate the role of the SlHAK5 K+ transporter in tomato K+ nutrition, Cs+ accumulation and its fertility. slhak5 KO lines, generated by CRISPR-Cas edition, were characterized in growth experiments, Rb+ and Cs+ uptake tests and root cells K+ -induced plasma membrane depolarizations. Pollen viability and its K+ accumulation capacity were estimated by using the K+ -sensitive dye Ion Potassium Green 4. SlHAK5 is the major system for high-affinity root K+ uptake required for plant growth at low K+ , even in the presence of salinity. It also constitutes a pathway for Cs+ entry in tomato plants with a strong impact on fruit Cs+ accumulation. SlHAK5 also contributes to pollen K+ uptake and viability and its absence produces almost seedless fruits. Knowledge gained into SlHAK5 can serve as a model for other crops with fleshy fruits and it can help to generate tools to develop low Cs+ or seedless fruits crops.

Reactive oxygen species, abiotic stress and stress combination.

Reactive oxygen species (ROS) play a key role in the acclimation process of plants to abiotic stress. They primarily function as signal transduction molecules that regulate different pathways during plant acclimation to stress, but are also toxic byproducts of stress metabolism. Because each subcellular compartment in plants contains its own set of ROS-producing and ROS-scavenging pathways, the steady-state level of ROS, as well as the redox state of each compartment, is different at any given time giving rise to a distinct signature of ROS levels at the different compartments of the cell. Here we review recent studies on the role of ROS in abiotic stress in plants, and propose that different abiotic stresses, such as drought, heat, salinity and high light, result in different ROS signatures that determine the specificity of the acclimation response and help tailor it to the exact stress the plant encounters. We further address the role of ROS in the acclimation of plants to stress combination as well as the role of ROS in mediating rapid systemic signaling during abiotic stress. We conclude that as long as cells maintain high enough energy reserves to detoxify ROS, ROS is beneficial to plants during abiotic stress enabling them to adjust their metabolism and mount a proper acclimation response.

Pharmacological and gene regulation properties point to the SlHAK5 K+ transporter as a system for high-affinity Cs+ uptake in tomato plants.

Potassium (K+ ) and cesium (Cs+ ) are chemically similar but while K+ is an essential nutrient, Cs+ can be toxic for living organisms, plants included. Two different situations could lead to problems derived from the presence of Cs+ in agricultural systems: (1) presence of Cs+ at high concentrations that could produce toxic effects on plants, (2) presence of micromolar concentrations of radiocesium, which can be accumulated in the plant and affect animal and human health through the food chain. While K+ uptake has been well described in tomato plants, information on molecular mechanisms involved in Cs+ accumulation in this species is absent. Here, we show that in tomato plants, high concentrations of Cs+ produce deficiency of K+ but do not induce high-affinity K+ uptake or the gene encoding the high-affinity K+ transporter SlHAK5. At these concentrations, Cs+ uptake takes place through a Ca2+ -sensitive pathway, probably a non-selective cation channel. At micromolar concentrations, Cs+ is accumulated by a high-affinity uptake system upregulated in K+ -starved plants. This high-affinity Cs+ uptake shares features with high-affinity K+ uptake. It is sensitive to NH4+ and insensitive to Ba2+ and Ca2+ and its presence parallels the pattern of SlHAK5 expression. Moreover, blockers of reactive oxygen species and ethylene action repress SlHAK5 and negatively regulate both high-affinity K+ and Cs+ uptake. Thus, we propose that SlHAK5 contributes to Cs+ uptake from micromolar concentrations in tomato plants and can constitute a pathway for radiocesium transfer from contaminated areas to the food chain.

Tolerance to Stress Combination in Tomato Plants: New Insights in the Protective Role of Melatonin.

Abiotic stresses such as drought, heat or salinity are major causes of yield loss worldwide. Recent studies have revealed that the acclimation of plants to a combination of different environmental stresses is unique and therefore cannot be directly deduced from studying the response of plants to each of the different stresses applied individually. The efficient detoxification of reactive oxygen species (ROS) is thought to play a key role in enhancing the tolerance of plants to abiotic stresses. Here, we report on the role of melatonin in the protection of the photosynthetic apparatus through the increase in ROS detoxification in tomato plants grown under the combination of salinity and heat, two of the most common abiotic stresses known to act jointly. Plants treated with exogenous melatonin showed a different modulation in the expression on some antioxidant-related genes and their related enzymes. More specifically, ascorbate peroxidase, glutathione reductase, glutathione peroxidase and phospholipid hydroperoxide glutathione peroxidase (APX, GR, GPX and Ph-GPX, resepctively) showed an antagonistic regulation as compared to plants that did not receive melatonin. This translated into a better antioxidant capacity and to a lesser ROS accumulation under stress combination. The performance of the photosynthesis parameters and the photosystems was also increased in plants treated with exogenous melatonin under the combination of salinity and heat. In accordance with these findings, tomato plants treated with melatonin were found to grow better under stress combination that the non-treated ones. Our study highlights the important role that exogenous melatonin plays in the acclimation of plants to a combination of two different abiotic stresses, and how this compound can specifically regulate oxidative stress-related genes and enzymes to increase plant tolerance.

Sugar metabolism reprogramming in a non-climacteric bud mutant of a climacteric plum fruit during development on the tree.

We investigated sugar metabolism in leaves and fruits of two Japanese plum (Prunus salicina Lindl.) cultivars, the climacteric Santa Rosa and its bud sport mutant the non-climacteric Sweet Miriam, during development on the tree. We previously characterized differences between the two cultivars. Here, we identified key sugar metabolic pathways. Pearson coefficient correlations of metabolomics and transcriptomic data and weighted gene co-expression network analysis (WGCNA) of RNA sequencing (RNA-Seq) data allowed the identification of 11 key sugar metabolism-associated genes: sucrose synthase, sucrose phosphate synthase, cytosolic invertase, vacuolar invertase, invertase inhibitor, α-galactosidase, ß-galactosidase, galactokinase, trehalase, galactinol synthase, and raffinose synthase. These pathways were further assessed and validated through the biochemical characterization of the gene products and with metabolite analysis. Our results demonstrated the reprogramming of sugar metabolism in both leaves and fruits in the non-climacteric plum, which displayed a shift towards increased sorbitol synthesis. Climacteric and non-climacteric fruits showed differences in their UDP-galactose metabolism towards the production of galactose and raffinose, respectively. The higher content of galactinol, myo-inositol, raffinose, and trehalose in the non-climacteric fruits could improve the ability of the fruits to cope with the oxidative processes associated with fruit ripening. Overall, our results support a relationship between sugar metabolism, ethylene, and ripening behavior.

Red blotch disease alters grape berry development and metabolism by interfering with the transcriptional and hormonal regulation of ripening.

Grapevine red blotch-associated virus (GRBaV) is a major threat to the wine industry in the USA. GRBaV infections (aka red blotch disease) compromise crop yield and berry chemical composition, affecting the flavor and aroma properties of must and wine. In this study, we combined genome-wide transcriptional profiling with targeted metabolite analyses and biochemical assays to characterize the impact of the disease on red-skinned berry ripening and metabolism. Using naturally infected berries collected from two vineyards, we were able to identify consistent berry responses to GRBaV across different environmental and cultural conditions. Specific alterations of both primary and secondary metabolism occurred in GRBaV-infected berries during ripening. Notably, GRBaV infections of post-véraison berries resulted in the induction of primary metabolic pathways normally associated with early berry development (e.g. thylakoid electron transfer and the Calvin cycle), while inhibiting ripening-associated pathways, such as a reduced metabolic flux in the central and peripheral phenylpropanoid pathways. We show that this metabolic reprogramming correlates with perturbations at multiple regulatory levels of berry development. Red blotch caused the abnormal expression of transcription factors (e.g. NACs, MYBs, and AP2-ERFs) and elements of the post-transcriptional machinery that function during red-skinned berry ripening. Abscisic acid, ethylene, and auxin pathways, which control both the initiation of ripening and stress responses, were also compromised. We conclude that GRBaV infections disrupt normal berry development and stress responses by altering transcription factors and hormone networks, which result in the inhibition of ripening pathways involved in the generation of color, flavor, and aroma compounds.

Tolerance of citrus plants to the combination of high temperatures and drought is associated to the increase in transpiration modulated by a reduction in abscisic acid levels.

BACKGROUND: In natural environments, several adverse environmental conditions occur simultaneously constituting a unique stress factor. In this work, physiological parameters and the hormonal regulation of Carrizo citrange and Cleopatra mandarin, two citrus genotypes, in response to the combined action of high temperatures and water deprivation were studied. The objective was to characterize particular responses to the stress combination. RESULTS: Experiments indicated that Carrizo citrange is more tolerant to the stress combination than Cleopatra mandarin. Furthermore, an experimental design spanning 24 h stress duration, heat stress applied alone induced higher stomatal conductance and transpiration in both genotypes whereas combined water deprivation partially counteracted this response. Comparing both genotypes, Carrizo citrange showed higher phostosystem-II efficiency and lower oxidative damage than Cleopatra mandarin. Hormonal profiling in leaves revealed that salicylic acid (SA) accumulated in response to individual stresses but to a higher extent in samples subjected to the combination of heat and drought (showing an additive response). SA accumulation correlated with the up-regulation of pathogenesis-related gene 2 (CsPR2), as a downstream response. On the contrary, abscisic acid (ABA) accumulation was higher in water-stressed plants followed by that observed in plants under stress combination. ABA signaling in these plants was confirmed by the expression of responsive to ABA-related gene 18 (CsRAB18). Modulation of ABA levels was likely carried out by the induction of 9-neoxanthin cis-epoxicarotenoid dioxygenase (CsNCED) and ABA 8'-hydroxylase (CsCYP707A) while conversion to ABA-glycosyl ester (ABAGE) was a less prominent process despite the strong induction of ABA O-glycosyl transferase (CsAOG). CONCLUSIONS: Cleopatra mandarin is more susceptible to the combination of high temperatures and water deprivation than Carrizo citrange. This is likely a result of a higher transpiration rate in Carrizo that could allow a more efficient cooling of leaf surface ensuring optimal CO2 intake. Hence, SA induction in Cleopatra was not sufficient to protect PSII from photoinhibition, resulting in higher malondialdehyde (MDA) build-up. Inhibition of ABA accumulation during heat stress and combined stresses was achieved primarily through the up-regulation of CsCYP707A leading to phaseic acid (PA) and dehydrophaseic acid (DPA) production. To sum up, data indicate that specific physiological responses to the combination of heat and drought exist in citrus. In addition, these responses are differently modulated depending on the particular stress tolerance of citrus genotypes.

The CBL-Interacting Protein Kinase CIPK23 Regulates HAK5-Mediated High-Affinity K+ Uptake in Arabidopsis Roots.

Plant growth and development requires efficient acquisition of essential elements. Potassium (K(+)) is an important macronutrient present in the soil solution at a wide range of concentrations. Regulation of the K(+) uptake systems in the roots is essential to secure K(+) supply. It has been shown in Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) that when the external K(+) concentration is very low (<10 µm), K(+) nutrition depends exclusively on the high-affinity K(+) transporter5 (HAK5). Low-K(+)-induced transcriptional activation of the gene encoding HAK5 has been previously reported. Here, we show the posttranscriptional regulation of HAK5 transport activity by phosphorylation. Expression in a heterologous system showed that the Ca(2+) sensors calcineurin B-like (CBL1), CBL8, CBL9, and CBL10, together with CBL-interacting protein kinase23 (CIPK23), activated HAK5 in vivo. This activation produced an increase in the affinity and the Vmax of K(+) transport. In vitro experiments show that the N terminus of HAK5 is phosphorylated by CIPK23. This supports the idea that phosphorylation of HAK5 induces a conformational change that increases its affinity for K(+). Experiments of K(+) (Rb(+)) uptake and growth measurements in low-K(+) medium with Arabidopsis single mutants hak5, akt1, and cipk23, double mutants hak5 akt1, hak5 cipk23, and akt1 cipk23, and the triple mutant hak5 akt1 cipk23 confirmed the regulatory role of CIPK23 in planta.

Developmental and Metabolic Plasticity of White-Skinned Grape Berries in Response to Botrytis cinerea during Noble Rot.

Noble rot results from exceptional infections of ripe grape (Vitis vinifera) berries by Botrytis cinerea. Unlike bunch rot, noble rot promotes favorable changes in grape berries and the accumulation of secondary metabolites that enhance wine grape composition. Noble rot-infected berries of cv Sémillon, a white-skinned variety, were collected over 3 years from a commercial vineyard at the same time that fruit were harvested for botrytized wine production. Using an integrated transcriptomics and metabolomics approach, we demonstrate that noble rot alters the metabolism of cv Sémillon berries by inducing biotic and abiotic stress responses as well as ripening processes. During noble rot, B. cinerea induced the expression of key regulators of ripening-associated pathways, some of which are distinctive to the normal ripening of red-skinned cultivars. Enhancement of phenylpropanoid metabolism, characterized by a restricted flux in white-skinned berries, was a common outcome of noble rot and red-skinned berry ripening. Transcript and metabolite analyses together with enzymatic assays determined that the biosynthesis of anthocyanins is a consistent hallmark of noble rot in cv Sémillon berries. The biosynthesis of terpenes and fatty acid aroma precursors also increased during noble rot. We finally characterized the impact of noble rot in botrytized wines. Altogether, the results of this work demonstrated that noble rot causes a major reprogramming of berry development and metabolism. This desirable interaction between a fruit and a fungus stimulates pathways otherwise inactive in white-skinned berries, leading to a greater accumulation of compounds involved in the unique flavor and aroma of botrytized wines.

Abiotic and biotic stress combinations.

Environmental stress conditions such as drought, heat, salinity, cold, or pathogen infection can have a devastating impact on plant growth and yield under field conditions. Nevertheless, the effects of these stresses on plants are typically being studied under controlled growth conditions in the laboratory. The field environment is very different from the controlled conditions used in laboratory studies, and often involves the simultaneous exposure of plants to more than one abiotic and/or biotic stress condition, such as a combination of drought and heat, drought and cold, salinity and heat, or any of the major abiotic stresses combined with pathogen infection. Recent studies have revealed that the response of plants to combinations of two or more stress conditions is unique and cannot be directly extrapolated from the response of plants to each of the different stresses applied individually. Moreover, the simultaneous occurrence of different stresses results in a high degree of complexity in plant responses, as the responses to the combined stresses are largely controlled by different, and sometimes opposing, signaling pathways that may interact and inhibit each other. In this review, we will provide an update on recent studies focusing on the response of plants to a combination of different stresses. In particular, we will address how different stress responses are integrated and how they impact plant growth and physiological traits.

The combined effect of salinity and heat reveals a specific physiological, biochemical and molecular response in tomato plants.

Many studies have described the response mechanisms of plants to salinity and heat applied individually; however, under field conditions some abiotic stresses often occur simultaneously. Recent studies revealed that the response of plants to a combination of two different stresses is specific and cannot be deduced from the stresses applied individually. Here, we report on the response of tomato plants to a combination of heat and salt stress. Interestingly, and in contrast to the expected negative effect of the stress combination on plant growth, our results show that the combination of heat and salinity provides a significant level of protection to tomato plants from the effects of salinity. We observed a specific response of plants to the stress combination that included accumulation of glycine betaine and trehalose. The accumulation of these compounds under the stress combination was linked to the maintenance of a high K(+) concentration and thus a lower Na(+) /K(+) ratio, with a better performance of the cell water status and photosynthesis as compared with salinity alone. Our findings unravel new and unexpected aspects of the response of plants to stress combination and provide a proposed list of enzymatic targets for improving crop tolerance to the abiotic field environment.

A low K+ signal is required for functional high-affinity K+ uptake through HAK5 transporters.

The high-affinity K(+) transporter HAK5 is a key system for root K(+) uptake and, under very low external K(+), the only one capable of supplying K(+) to the plant. Functional HAK5-mediated K(+) uptake should be tightly regulated for plant adaptation to different environmental conditions. Thus, it has been described that the gene encoding the transporter is transcriptionally regulated, being highly induced under K(+) limitation. Here we show that environmental conditions, such as the lack of K(+), NO(3)(-) or P, that induced a hyperpolarization of the plasma membrane of root cells, induce HAK5 transcription. However, only the deprivation of K(+) produces functional HAK5-mediated K(+) uptake in the root. These results suggest on the one hand the existence of a posttranscriptional regulation of HAK5 elicited by the low K(+) signal and on the other that HAK5 may be involved in yet-unknown functions related to NO(3)(-) and P deficiencies. These results have been obtained here with Solanum lycopersicum (cv. Micro-Tom) as well as Arabidopsis thaliana plants, suggesting that the posttranscriptional regulation of high-affinity HAK transporters take place in all plant species.

Redox post-translational modifications and their interplay in plant abiotic stress tolerance.

The impact of climate change entails a progressive and inexorable modification of the Earth's climate and events such as salinity, drought, extreme temperatures, high luminous intensity and ultraviolet radiation tend to be more numerous and prolonged in time. Plants face their exposure to these abiotic stresses or their combination through multiple physiological, metabolic and molecular mechanisms, to achieve the long-awaited acclimatization to these extreme conditions, and to thereby increase their survival rate. In recent decades, the increase in the intensity and duration of these climatological events have intensified research into the mechanisms behind plant tolerance to them, with great advances in this field. Among these mechanisms, the overproduction of molecular reactive species stands out, mainly reactive oxygen, nitrogen and sulfur species. These molecules have a dual activity, as they participate in signaling processes under physiological conditions, but, under stress conditions, their production increases, interacting with each other and modifying and-or damaging the main cellular components: lipids, carbohydrates, nucleic acids and proteins. The latter have amino acids in their sequence that are susceptible to post-translational modifications, both reversible and irreversible, through the different reactive species generated by abiotic stresses (redox-based PTMs). Some research suggests that this process does not occur randomly, but that the modification of critical residues in enzymes modulates their biological activity, being able to enhance or inhibit complete metabolic pathways in the process of acclimatization and tolerance to the exposure to the different abiotic stresses. Given the importance of these PTMs-based regulation mechanisms in the acclimatization processes of plants, the present review gathers the knowledge generated in recent years on this subject, delving into the PTMs of the redox-regulated enzymes of plant metabolism, and those that participate in the main stress-related pathways, such as oxidative metabolism, primary metabolism, cell signaling events, and photosynthetic metabolism. The aim is to unify the existing information thus far obtained to shed light on possible fields of future research in the search for the resilience of plants to climate change.