Inflammatory response in Parkinsonism.

Inflammatory responses have been proposed as important factors in dopaminergic neuro-degeneration in Parkinsonism. Increasing evidence suggests that the alteration of the glial microenvironment induced by neuronal degeneration could be deleterious to the remaining neurons. The activation of microglia/macrophages and reactive astrocytes may have a negative effect on the surrounding parenchyma, perpetuating the neurodegenerative process. However, this alteration may also go beyond the brain parenchyma and stimulate other inflammatory changes in other systems, inducing the release of proinflammatory cytokines and probably Acute Phase Proteins (APP) and Glucocorticoids (GC). In this work we review the latest advances in the field to provide a picture of the state of the art of studies of inflammatory responses and Parkinsonism, hopefully opening up new therapeutic perspectives for patients with Parkinson's disease.

Persistent phagocytic characteristics of microglia in the substantia nigra of long-term Parkinsonian macaques.

Patients with Parkinson's disease show persistent microglial activation in the areas of the brain where the degeneration of dopaminergic neurons takes place. The reason for maintaining this activated state is still unknown, but it is thought that this persistent microglial activation may contribute to the degeneration of dopaminergic neurons. In this study, we report the microanatomical details of microglia and the relationship between microglia and neurons in the substantia nigra pars compacta of Parkinsonian monkeys years after insult with MPTP. We observed that microglial cells appear polarized toward dopaminergic neurons in MPTP-treated macaques compared to untreated animals and present clear phagocytic characteristics, such as engulfing gliaptic contacts, an increase in Golgi apparatus protein machinery and ball-and-chain phagocytic buds. These results demonstrate that activated microglia maintain phagocytic characteristics years after neurotoxin insult, and phagocytosis may be a key contributor to the neurodegenerative process.

ROCK/Cdc42-mediated microglial motility and gliapse formation lead to phagocytosis of degenerating dopaminergic neurons in vivo.

The role of microglial motility in the context of adult neurodegeneration is poorly understood. In the present work, we investigated the microanatomical details of microglia-neuron interactions in an experimental mouse model of Parkinson's disease following the intraperitoneal injection of MPTP. The specific intoxication of dopaminergic neurons induces the cellular polarization of microglia, leading to the formation of body-to-body neuron-glia contacts, called gliapses, which precede neuron elimination. Inhibiting ROCK/Cdc42-mediated microglial motility in vivo blocks the activating features of microglia, such as increased cell size and number of filopodia and diminishes their phagocyting/secreting domains, as the reduction of the Golgi apparatus and the number of microglia-neuron contacts has shown. High-resolution confocal images and three-dimensional rendering demonstrate that microglia engulf entire neurons at one-to-one ratio, and the microglial cell body participates in the formation of the phagocytic cup, engulfing and eliminating neurons in areas of dopaminergic degeneration in adult mammals.

CCL2-expressing astrocytes mediate the extravasation of T lymphocytes in the brain. Evidence from patients with glioma and experimental models in vivo.

CCL2 is a chemokine involved in brain inflammation, but the way in which it contributes to the entrance of lymphocytes in the parenchyma is unclear. Imaging of the cell type responsible for this task and details on how the process takes place in vivo remain elusive. Herein, we analyze the cell type that overexpresses CCL2 in multiple scenarios of T-cell infiltration in the brain and in three different species. We observe that CCL2+ astrocytes play a part in the infiltration of T-cells in the brain and our analysis shows that the contact of T-cells with perivascular astrocytes occurs, suggesting that may be an important event for lymphocyte extravasation.