Spatially coordinated heterochromatinization of long synaptic genes in fragile X syndrome.

Short tandem repeat (STR) instability causes transcriptional silencing in several repeat expansion disorders. In fragile X syndrome (FXS), mutation-length expansion of a CGG STR represses FMR1 via local DNA methylation. Here, we find megabase-scale H3K9me3 domains on autosomes and encompassing FMR1 on the X chromosome in FXS patient-derived iPSCs, iPSC-derived neural progenitors, EBV-transformed lymphoblasts, and brain tissue with mutation-length CGG expansion. H3K9me3 domains connect via inter-chromosomal interactions and demarcate severe misfolding of TADs and loops. They harbor long synaptic genes replicating at the end of S phase, replication-stress-induced double-strand breaks, and STRs prone to stepwise somatic instability. CRISPR engineering of the mutation-length CGG to premutation length reverses H3K9me3 on the X chromosome and multiple autosomes, refolds TADs, and restores gene expression. H3K9me3 domains can also arise in normal-length iPSCs created with perturbations linked to genome instability, suggesting their relevance beyond FXS. Our results reveal Mb-scale heterochromatinization and trans interactions among loci susceptible to instability.

Psychological and emotional experiences of participants in a medical school, early assurance admissions program targeting students from groups underrepresented in medicine.

BACKGROUND: There are growing number of pathway programs, with an early assurance of admission, that target undergraduate students from groups underrepresented in medicine (URiM) to enable their competitiveness for and matriculation to medical school, including the Penn Access Summer Scholars (PASS) program. The psychological and emotional experiences of students in these programs, however, have not been previously described. METHODS: Students from the summer 2021 cohort of the PASS program were interviewed using a structured set of questions that explored four specific areas: (i) the application process; (ii) the benefits and value of being in the PASS program; (iii) the emotional and psychological challenges and stresses of being in the PASS program; (iv) feelings and emotions about not taking the MCAT or having to interview at multiple schools. The transcribed, de-identified interviews were then subjected to a qualitative analysis. RESULTS: Students in PASS reported that the program was valuable to them in that it reduced the stress of the pre-medical process; relieved worry and anxiety surrounding the MCAT; enabled development of supportive relationships and provided meaningful exposures to the medical profession and biomedical research. Despite this, students reported feelings of imposterism, guilt, and fear of disappointing, along with varying degrees of regret over not taking the MCAT and not interviewing at more than one medical school. CONCLUSIONS: URiM and other marginalized students participating in early assurance admissions programs likely enter medical school with a range of positive and negative emotions as a result of their participation in these programs. These data can be used to inform the development of programing and other initiatives that further support the transition and success of these students in medical school.

MASTR-seq: Multiplexed Analysis of Short Tandem Repeats with sequencing.

More than 60 human disorders have been linked to unstable expansion of short tandem repeat (STR) tracts. STR length and the extent of DNA methylation is linked to disease pathology and can be mosaic in a cell type-specific manner in several repeat expansion disorders. Mosaic phenomenon have been difficult to study to date due to technical bias intrinsic to repeat sequences and the need for multi-modal measurements at single-allele resolution. Nanopore long-read sequencing accurately measures STR length and DNA methylation in the same single molecule but is cost prohibitive for studies assessing a target locus across multiple experimental conditions or patient samples. Here, we describe MASTR-seq, M ultiplexed A nalysis of S hort T andem R epeats, for cost-effective, high-throughput, accurate, multi-modal measurements of DNA methylation and STR genotype at single-allele resolution. MASTR-seq couples long-read sequencing, Cas9-mediated target enrichment, and PCR-free multiplexed barcoding to achieve a >ten-fold increase in on-target read mapping for 8-12 pooled samples in a single MinION flow cell. We provide a detailed experimental protocol and computational tools and present evidence that MASTR-seq quantifies tract length and DNA methylation status for CGG and CAG STR loci in normal-length and mutation-length human cell lines. The MASTR-seq protocol takes approximately eight days for experiments and one additional day for data processing and analyses. Key points: We provide a protocol for MASTR-seq: M ultiplexed A nalysis of S hort T andem R epeats using Cas9-mediated target enrichment and PCR-free, multiplexed nanopore sequencing. MASTR-seq achieves a >10-fold increase in on-target read proportion for highly repetitive, technically inaccessible regions of the genome relevant for human health and disease.MASTR-seq allows for high-throughput, efficient, accurate, and cost-effective measurement of STR length and DNA methylation in the same single allele for up to 8-12 samples in parallel in one Nanopore MinION flow cell.

A multi-looping chromatin signature predicts dysregulated gene expression in neurons with familial Alzheimer's disease mutations.

Mammalian genomes fold into tens of thousands of long-range loops, but their functional role and physiologic relevance remain poorly understood. Here, using human post-mitotic neurons with rare familial Alzheimer's disease (FAD) mutations, we identify hundreds of reproducibly dysregulated genes and thousands of miswired loops prior to amyloid accumulation and tau phosphorylation. Single loops do not predict expression changes; however, the severity and direction of change in mRNA levels and single-cell burst frequency strongly correlate with the number of FAD-gained or -lost promoter-enhancer loops. Classic architectural proteins CTCF and cohesin do not change occupancy in FAD-mutant neurons. Instead, we unexpectedly find TAATTA motifs amenable to binding by DLX homeodomain transcription factors and changing noncoding RNAPolII signal at FAD-dynamic promoter-enhancer loops. DLX1/5/6 mRNA levels are strongly upregulated in FAD-mutant neurons coincident with a shift in excitatory-to-inhibitory gene expression and miswiring of multi-loops connecting enhancers to neural subtype genes. DLX1 overexpression is sufficient for loop miswiring in wildtype neurons, including lost and gained loops at enhancers with tandem TAATTA arrays and singular TAATTA motifs, respectively. Our data uncover a genome structure-function relationship between multi-loop miswiring and dysregulated excitatory and inhibitory transcriptional programs during lineage commitment of human neurons homozygously-engineered with rare FAD mutations.

Adenylyl cyclases and TRPV4 mediate Ca2+/cAMP dynamics to enhance fluid flow-induced osteogenesis in osteocytes.

Bone adapts to physical forces and this process is dependent on osteocyte mechanotransduction. One way osteocytes sense mechanical stimulation is through the primary cilium, a sensory organelle that triggers intracellular signaling cascades in response to fluid shear. Our lab previously determined that flow-induced ciliary Ca2+ influx and changes in cytosolic cAMP levels are critical for osteogenesis. We also identified two proteins important for osteocyte mechanotransduction: transient receptor potential vanilloid 4 (TRPV4) and adenylyl cyclase 6 (AC6). Interestingly, disrupting the Ca2+-binding ability of these proteins results in loss of function. Although knockdowns of TRPV4 and AC6 disrupt osteogenesis, there is no definitive evidence linking them to Ca2+/cAMP dynamics that facilitate osteocyte mechanotransduction. We therefore transfected MLO-Y4 osteocytes with AC3/6 and TRPV4 overexpression plasmids that fail to interact with Ca2+ and observed the response to fluid shear. Indeed, mutant groups exhibited adverse changes in cAMP and lower mRNA expression of an osteogenic marker, COX-2, at the onset of flow. This pattern persisted for AC3 and TRPV4 but we detected no difference in AC6 at longer exposure to flow. These results suggest TRPV4 and ACs mediate Ca2+/cAMP dynamics that are important for osteocyte mechanotransduction. These mechanisms are potential targets for therapeutics to combat bone loss and should be investigated further.

Periosteal progenitors contribute to load-induced bone formation in adult mice and require primary cilia to sense mechanical stimulation.

BACKGROUND: The fully developed adult skeleton adapts to mechanical forces by generating more bone, usually at the periosteal surface. Progenitor cells in the periosteum are believed to differentiate into bone-forming osteoblasts that contribute to load-induced adult bone formation, but in vivo evidence does not yet exist. Furthermore, the mechanism by which periosteal progenitors might sense physical loading and trigger differentiation is unknown. We propose that periosteal osteochondroprogenitors (OCPs) directly sense mechanical load and differentiate into bone-forming osteoblasts via their primary cilia, mechanosensory organelles known to be involved in osteogenic differentiation. METHODS: We generated a diphtheria toxin ablation mouse model and performed ulnar loading and dynamic histomorphometry to quantify the contribution of periosteal OCPs in adult bone formation in vivo. We also generated a primary cilium knockout model and isolated periosteal cells to study the role of the cilium in periosteal OCP mechanosensing in vitro. Experimental groups were compared using one-way analysis of variance or student's t test, and sample size was determined to achieve a minimum power of 80%. RESULTS: Mice without periosteal OCPs had severely attenuated mechanically induced bone formation and lacked the mineralization necessary for daily skeletal maintenance. Our in vitro results demonstrate that OCPs in the periosteum uniquely sense fluid shear and exhibit changes in osteogenic markers consistent with osteoblast differentiation; however, this response is essentially lost when the primary cilium is absent. CONCLUSIONS: Combined, our data show that periosteal progenitors are a mechanosensitive cell source that significantly contribute to adult skeletal maintenance. More importantly, an OCP population persists in the adult skeleton and these cells, as well as their cilia, are promising targets for bone regeneration strategies.

Correction to: Periosteal progenitors contribute to load-induced bone formation in adult mice and require primary cilia to sense mechanical stimulation.

The original article [1] contained two minor errors affecting the labelling of Fig. 3d and Figs. 6b & 6c; these errors have now been corrected in the respective figures in the original article.