Optimization of an Assay To Determine Colonization Resistance to Clostridioides difficile in Fecal Samples from Healthy Subjects and Those Treated with Antibiotics.

A healthy, intact gut microbiota is often resistant to colonization by gastrointestinal pathogens. During periods of dysbiosis, however, organisms such as Clostridioides difficile can thrive. We describe an optimized in vitro colonization resistance assay for C. difficile in stool (CRACS) and demonstrate the utility of this assay by assessing changes in colonization resistance following antibiotic exposure. Fecal samples were obtained from healthy volunteers (n = 6) and from healthy subjects receiving 5 days of moxifloxacin (n = 11) or no antibiotics (n = 10). Samples were separated and either not manipulated (raw) or sterilized (autoclaved or filtered) prior to inoculation with C. difficile ribotype 027 spores and anaerobic incubation for 72 h. Different methods of storing fecal samples were also investigated in order to optimize the CRACS. In healthy, raw fecal samples, incubation with spores did not lead to increased C. difficile total viable counts (TVCs) or cytotoxin detection. In contrast, increased C. difficile TVCs and cytotoxin detection occurred in sterilized healthy fecal samples or those from antibiotic-treated individuals. The CRACS was functional with fecal samples stored at either 4°C or -80°C but not with those stored with glycerol (12% or 30% [vol/vol]). Our data show that the CRACS successfully models in vitro the loss of colonization resistance and subsequent C. difficile proliferation and toxin production. The CRACS could be used as a proxy for C. difficile infection in clinical studies or to determine if an individual is at risk of developing C. difficile infection or other potential infections occurring due to a loss of colonization resistance.

Impact of oral amoxicillin and amoxicillin/clavulanic acid treatment on bacterial diversity and ß-lactam resistance in the canine faecal microbiota.

BACKGROUND: Aminopenicillins with or without a ß-lactamase inhibitor are widely used in both human and veterinary medicine. However, little is known about their differential impact on the gut microbiota and development of antimicrobial resistance. OBJECTIVES: To investigate changes in the faecal microbiota of dogs treated with amoxicillin or amoxicillin/clavulanic acid. METHODS: Faeces collected from 42 dogs (21 per treatment group) immediately before, during and 1 week after termination of oral treatment with amoxicillin or amoxicillin/clavulanic acid were analysed by culture and 16S rRNA gene sequence analysis. RESULTS: In both groups, bacterial counts on ampicillin selective agar revealed an increase in the proportion of ampicillin-resistant Escherichia coli during treatment, and an increased occurrence and proportion of ampicillin-resistant enterococci during and after treatment. 16S rRNA gene analysis showed reductions in microbial richness and diversity during treatment followed by a return to pre-treatment conditions approximately 1 week after cessation of amoxicillin or amoxicillin/clavulanic acid treatment. While no significant differences were observed between the effects of amoxicillin and amoxicillin/clavulanic acid on microbial richness and diversity, treatment with amoxicillin/clavulanic acid reduced the abundance of taxa that are considered part of the beneficial microbiota (such as Roseburia, Dialister and Lachnospiraceae) and enriched Escherichia, although the latter result was not corroborated by phenotypic counts. CONCLUSIONS: Our results suggest a limited effect of clavulanic acid on selection of antimicrobial resistance and microbial richness when administered orally in combination with amoxicillin. However, combination with this ß-lactamase inhibitor appears to broaden the spectrum of amoxicillin, with potential negative consequences on gut health.

DAV131A Protects Hamsters from Lethal Clostridioides difficile Infection Induced by Fluoroquinolones.

Fluoroquinolone treatments induce dysbiosis of the intestinal microbiota, resulting in loss of resistance to colonization by exogenous bacteria such as Clostridioides difficile that may cause severe diarrhea in humans and lethal infection in hamsters. We show here that DAV131A, a charcoal-based adsorbent, decreases the intestinal levels of the fluoroquinolone antibiotics levofloxacin and ciprofloxacin in hamsters, protects their intestinal microbiota, and prevents lethal infection by C. difficile.

Protection of the Human Gut Microbiome From Antibiotics.

Background: Antibiotics are life-saving drugs but severely affect the gut microbiome with short-term consequences including diarrhea and selection of antibiotic-resistant bacteria. Long-term links to allergy and obesity are also suggested. We devised a product, DAV132, and previously showed its ability to deliver a powerful adsorbent, activated charcoal, in the late ileum of human volunteers. Methods: We performed a randomized controlled trial in 28 human volunteers treated with a 5-day clinical regimen of the fluoroquinolone antibiotic moxifloxacin in 2 parallel groups, with or without DAV132 coadministration. Two control goups of 8 volunteers each receiving DAV132 alone, or a nonactive substitute, were added. Results: The coadministration of DAV132 decreased free moxifloxacin fecal concentrations by 99%, while plasmatic levels were unaffected. Shotgun quantitative metagenomics showed that the richness and composition of the intestinal microbiota were largely preserved in subjects co-treated with DAV132 in addition to moxifloxacin. No adverse effect was observed. In addition, DAV132 efficiently adsorbed a wide range of clinically relevant antibiotics ex vivo. Conclusions: DAV132 was highly effective to protect the gut microbiome of moxifloxacin-treated healthy volunteers and may constitute a clinical breakthrough by preventing adverse health consequences of a wide range of antibiotic treatments. Clinical Trials Registration: NCT02176005.

Antibiotic-Induced Dysbiosis Predicts Mortality in an Animal Model of Clostridium difficile Infection.

Antibiotic disruption of the intestinal microbiota favors colonization by Clostridium difficile Using a charcoal-based adsorbent to decrease intestinal antibiotic concentrations, we studied the relationship between antibiotic concentrations in feces and the intensity of dysbiosis and quantified the link between this intensity and mortality. We administered either moxifloxacin (n = 70) or clindamycin (n = 60) to hamsters by subcutaneous injection from day 1 (D1) to D5 and challenged them with a C. difficile toxigenic strain at D3 Hamsters received various doses of a charcoal-based adsorbent, DAV131A, to modulate intestinal antibiotic concentrations. Gut dysbiosis was evaluated at D0 and D3 using diversity indices determined from 16S rRNA gene profiling. Survival was monitored until D16 We analyzed the relationship between fecal antibiotic concentrations and dysbiosis at the time of C. difficile challenge and studied their capacity to predict subsequent death of the animals. Increasing doses of DAV131A reduced fecal concentrations of both antibiotics, lowered dysbiosis, and increased survival from 0% to 100%. Mortality was related to the level of dysbiosis (P < 10-5 for the change of Shannon index in moxifloxacin-treated animals and P < 10-9 in clindamycin-treated animals). The Shannon diversity index and unweighted UniFrac distance best predicted death, with areas under the receiver operating curve (ROC) of 0.89 (95% confidence interval [CI], 0.82, 0.95) and 0.95 (0.90, 0.98), respectively. Altogether, moxifloxacin and clindamycin disrupted the diversity of the intestinal microbiota with a dependency on the DAV131A dose; mortality after C. difficile challenge was related to the intensity of dysbiosis in similar manners with the two antibiotics.

Incidence and predictive biomarkers of Clostridioides difficile infection in hospitalized patients receiving broad-spectrum antibiotics.

Trial enrichment using gut microbiota derived biomarkers by high-risk individuals can improve the feasibility of randomized controlled trials for prevention of Clostridioides difficile infection (CDI). Here, we report in a prospective observational cohort study the incidence of CDI and assess potential clinical characteristics and biomarkers to predict CDI in 1,007 patients ≥ 50 years receiving newly initiated antibiotic treatment with penicillins plus a beta-lactamase inhibitor, 3rd/4th generation cephalosporins, carbapenems, fluoroquinolones or clindamycin from 34 European hospitals. The estimated 90-day cumulative incidences of a first CDI episode is 1.9% (95% CI 1.1-3.0). Carbapenem treatment (Hazard Ratio (95% CI): 5.3 (1.7-16.6)), toxigenic C. difficile rectal carriage (10.3 (3.2-33.1)), high intestinal abundance of Enterococcus spp. relative to Ruminococcus spp. (5.4 (2.1-18.7)), and low Shannon alpha diversity index as determined by 16 S rRNA gene profiling (9.7 (3.2-29.7)), but not normalized urinary 3-indoxyl sulfate levels, predicts an increased CDI risk.