Light Adaptation of Retinal Rod Bipolar Cells.

The sensitivity of retinal cells is altered in background light to optimize the detection of contrast. For scotopic (rod) vision, substantial adaptation occurs in the first two cells, the rods and rod bipolar cells (RBCs), through sensitivity adjustments in rods and postsynaptic modulation of the transduction cascade in RBCs. To study the mechanisms mediating these components of adaptation, we made whole-cell, voltage-clamp recordings from retinal slices of mice from both sexes. Adaptation was assessed by fitting the Hill equation to response-intensity relationships with the parameters of half-maximal response (I1/2 ), Hill coefficient (n), and maximum response amplitude (Rmax ). We show that rod sensitivity decreases in backgrounds according to the Weber-Fechner relation with an I1/2 of ∼50 R* s-1 The sensitivity of RBCs follows a near-identical function, indicating that changes in RBC sensitivity in backgrounds bright enough to adapt the rods are mostly derived from the rods themselves. Backgrounds too dim to adapt the rods can however alter n, relieving a synaptic nonlinearity likely through entry of Ca2+ into the RBCs. There is also a surprising decrease of Rmax , indicating that a step in RBC synaptic transduction is desensitized or that the transduction channels became reluctant to open. This effect is greatly reduced after dialysis of BAPTA at a membrane potential of +50 mV to impede Ca2+ entry. Thus the effects of background illumination in RBCs are in part the result of processes intrinsic to the photoreceptors and in part derive from additional Ca2+-dependent processes at the first synapse of vision.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Light adaptation adjusts the sensitivity of vision as ambient illumination changes. Adaptation for scotopic (rod) vision is known to occur partly in the rods and partly in the rest of the retina from presynaptic and postsynaptic mechanisms. We recorded light responses of rods and rod bipolar cells to identify different components of adaptation and study their mechanisms. We show that bipolar-cell sensitivity largely follows adaptation of the rods but that light too dim to adapt the rods produces a linearization of the bipolar-cell response and a surprising decrease in maximum response amplitude, both mediated by a change in intracellular Ca2+ These findings provide a new understanding of how the retina responds to changing illumination.

Reproducibility of the Rod Photoreceptor Response Depends Critically on the Concentration of the Phosphodiesterase Effector Enzyme.

The high sensitivity of night vision requires that rod photoreceptors reliably and reproducibly signal the absorption of single photons, a process that depends on tight regulation of intracellular cGMP concentration through the phototransduction cascade. Here in the mouse (Mus musculus), we studied a single-site D167A mutation of the gene for the α subunit of rod photoreceptor phosphodiesterase (PDEA), made with the aim of removing a noncatalytic binding site for cGMP. This mutation unexpectedly eliminated nearly all PDEA expression and reduced expression of the ß subunit (PDEB) to ∼5%-10% of WT. The remaining PDE had nearly normal specific activity; degeneration was slow, with 50%-60% of rods remaining after 6 months. Responses were larger and more sensitive than normal but slower in rise and decay, probably from slower dark turnover of cGMP. Remarkably, responses became much less reproducible than WT, with response variance increasing for amplitude by over 10-fold, and for latency and time-to-peak by >100-fold. We hypothesize that the increase in variance is the result of greater variability in the dark-resting concentration of cGMP, produced by spatial and temporal nonuniformity in spontaneous PDE activity. This variability decreased as stimuli were made brighter, presumably because of greater spatial uniformity of phototransduction and the approach to saturation. We conclude that the constancy of the rod response depends critically on PDE expression to maintain adequate spontaneous PDE activity, so that the concentration of second messenger is relatively uniform throughout the outer segment.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Rod photoreceptors in the vertebrate retina reliably signal the absorption of single photons of light by generating responses that are remarkably reproducible in amplitude and waveform. We show that this reproducibility depends critically on the concentration of the effector enzyme phosphodiesterase (PDE), which metabolizes the second messenger cGMP and generates rod light responses. In rods with the D167A mutation of the α subunit of PDE, only 5%-10% of PDE is expressed. Single-photon responses then become much more variable than in WT rods. We think this variability is caused by spatial and temporal inhomogeneity in the concentration of cGMP in darkness, so that photons absorbed in different parts of the cell produce responses of greatly varying amplitude and waveform.

Elevated energy requirement of cone photoreceptors.

We have used recent measurements of mammalian cone light responses and voltage-gated currents to calculate cone ATP utilization and compare it to that of rods. The largest expenditure of ATP results from ion transport, particularly from removal of Na+ entering outer segment light-dependent channels and inner segment hyperpolarization-activated cyclic nucleotide-gated channels, and from ATP-dependent pumping of Ca2+ entering voltage-gated channels at the synaptic terminal. Single cones expend nearly twice as much energy as single rods in darkness, largely because they make more synapses with second-order retinal cells and thus must extrude more Ca2+ In daylight, cone ATP utilization per cell remains high because cones never remain saturated and must continue to export Na+ and synaptic Ca2+ even in bright illumination. In mouse and human retina, rods greatly outnumber cones and consume more energy overall even in background light. In primates, however, the high density of cones in the fovea produces a pronounced peak of ATP utilization, which becomes particularly prominent in daylight and may make this part of the retina especially sensitive to changes in energy availability.

A Novel Role for UNC119 as an Enhancer of Synaptic Transmission.

Mammalian UNC119 is a ciliary trafficking chaperone highly expressed in the inner segment of retinal photoreceptors. Previous research has shown that UNC119 can bind to transducin, the synaptic ribbon protein RIBEYE, and the calcium-binding protein CaBP4, suggesting that UNC119 may have a role in synaptic transmission. We made patch-clamp recordings from retinal slices in mice with the UNC119 gene deleted and showed that removal of even one gene of UNC119 has no effect on the rod outer segment photocurrent, but acted on bipolar cells much like background light: it depolarized membrane potential, decreased sensitivity, accelerated response decay, and decreased the Hill coefficient of the response-intensity relationship. Similar effects were seen on rod bipolar-cell current and voltage responses, and after exposure to bright light to translocate transducin into the rod inner segment. These findings indicate that UNC119 deletion reduces the steady-state glutamate release rate at rod synapses, though no change in the voltage dependence of the synaptic Ca current was detected. We conclude that UNC119, either by itself or together with transducin, can facilitate the release of glutamate at rod synapses, probably by some interaction with RIBEYE or other synaptic proteins rather than by binding to CaBP4 or calcium channels.

Rod Photoreceptors Avoid Saturation in Bright Light by the Movement of the G Protein Transducin.

Rod photoreceptors can be saturated by exposure to bright background light, so that no flash superimposed on the background can elicit a detectable response. This phenomenon, called increment saturation, was first demonstrated psychophysically by Aguilar and Stiles and has since been shown in many studies to occur in single rods. Recent experiments indicate, however, that rods may be able to avoid saturation under some conditions of illumination. We now show in ex vivo electroretinogram and single-cell recordings that in continuous and prolonged exposure even to very bright light, the rods of mice from both sexes recover as much as 15% of their dark current and that responses can persist for hours. In parallel to recovery of outer segment current is an ∼10-fold increase in the sensitivity of rod photoresponses. This recovery is decreased in transgenic mice with reduced light-dependent translocation of the G protein transducin. The reduction in outer-segment transducin together with a novel mechanism of visual-pigment regeneration within the rod itself enable rods to remain responsive over the whole of the physiological range of vision. In this way, rods are able to avoid an extended period of transduction channel closure, which is known to cause photoreceptor degeneration.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Rods are initially saturated in bright light so that no flash superimposed on the background can elicit a detectable response. Frederiksen and colleagues show in whole retina and single-cell recordings that, if the background light is prolonged, rods slowly recover and can continue to produce significant responses over the entire physiological range of vision. Response recovery occurs by translocation of the G protein transducin from the rod outer to the inner segment, together with a novel mechanism of visual-pigment regeneration within the rod itself. Avoidance of saturation in bright light may be one of the principal mechanisms the retina uses to keep rod outer-segment channels from ever closing for too long a time, which is known to produce photoreceptor degeneration.

A hyperpolarizing rod bipolar cell in the sea lamprey, Petromyzon marinus.

Retinal bipolar cells receive direct input from rod and cone photoreceptors and send axons into the inner retina, synapsing onto amacrine and ganglion cells. Bipolar cell responses can be either depolarizing (ON) or hyperpolarizing (OFF); in lower vertebrates, bipolar cells receive mixed rod and cone input, whereas in mammals, input is mostly segregated into 14 classes of cone ON and OFF cells and a single rod ON bipolar cell. We show that lamprey, like mammals, have rod bipolar cells with little or no cone input, but these cells are OFF rather than ON. They have a characteristic morphology and a spectral sensitivity nearly indistinguishable from that of rod photoreceptors. In background light known to saturate rods, rod bipolar cells are also saturated and cannot respond to increment flashes. Our results suggest that early vertebrate progenitors of both agnathans and gnathostomes may have had a more fluid retinal organization than previously thought.

Light responses of mammalian cones.

Cone photoreceptors provide the foundation of most of human visual experience, but because they are smaller and less numerous than rods in most mammalian retinas, much less is known about their physiology. We describe new techniques and approaches which are helping to provide a better understanding of cone function. We focus on several outstanding issues, including the identification of the features of the phototransduction cascade that are responsible for the more rapid kinetics and decreased sensitivity of the cone response, the roles of inner-segment voltage-gated and Ca2+-activated channels, the means by which cones remain responsive even in the brightest illumination, mechanisms of cone visual pigment regeneration in constant light, and energy consumption of cones in comparison to that of rods.

Activation of Rod Input in a Model of Retinal Degeneration Reverses Retinal Remodeling and Induces Formation of Functional Synapses and Recovery of Visual Signaling in the Adult Retina.

A major cause of human blindness is the death of rod photoreceptors. As rods degenerate, synaptic structures between rod and rod bipolar cells disappear and the rod bipolar cells extend their dendrites and occasionally make aberrant contacts. Such changes are broadly observed in blinding disorders caused by photoreceptor cell death and are thought to occur in response to deafferentation. How the remodeled retinal circuit affects visual processing following rod rescue is not known. To address this question, we generated male and female transgenic mice wherein a disrupted cGMP-gated channel (CNG) gene can be repaired at the endogenous locus and at different stages of degeneration by tamoxifen-inducible cre-mediated recombination. In normal rods, light-induced closure of CNG channels leads to hyperpolarization of the cell, reducing neurotransmitter release at the synapse. Similarly, rods lacking CNG channels exhibit a resting membrane potential that was ~10 mV hyperpolarized compared to WT rods, indicating diminished glutamate release. Retinas from these mice undergo stereotypic retinal remodeling as a consequence of rod malfunction and degeneration. Upon tamoxifen-induced expression of CNG channels, rods recovered their structure and exhibited normal light responses. Moreover, we show that the adult mouse retina displays a surprising degree of plasticity upon activation of rod input. Wayward bipolar cell dendrites establish contact with rods to support normal synaptic transmission, which is propagated to the retinal ganglion cells. These findings demonstrate remarkable plasticity extending beyond the developmental period and support efforts to repair or replace defective rods in patients blinded by rod degeneration.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Current strategies for treatment of neurodegenerative disorders are focused on the repair of the primary affected cell type. However, the defective neurons function within a complex neural circuitry, which also becomes degraded during disease. It is not known whether rescued neurons and the remodeled circuit will establish communication to regain normal function. We show that the adult mammalian neural retina exhibits a surprising degree of plasticity following rescue of rod photoreceptors. The wayward dendrites of rod bipolar cells re-establish contact with rods to support normal synaptic transmission, which is propagated to the retinal ganglion cells. These findings support efforts to repair or replace defective rods in patients blinded by rod cell loss.

Voltage-sensitive conductances increase the sensitivity of rod photoresponses following pigment bleaching.

KEY POINTS: Following substantial bleaching of the visual pigment, the desensitization of the rod photovoltage is not as substantial as the desensitization of the rod outer segment photocurrent. The block of cation conductances during the internal dialysis of Cs+ further desensitizes the photovoltage thereby eliminating its difference in desensitization with the rod outer segment photocurrent. Bleached visual pigment produced an acceleration of the rod photovoltage with respect to the outer segment photocurrent, which is eliminated upon internal dialysis of Cs+ . ABSTRACT: A majority of our visual experience occurs during the day when a substantial fraction of the visual pigment in our photoreceptor cells is bleached. Under these conditions it is widely believed that rods are saturated and do not contribute substantially to downstream signalling. However, behavioural experiments on subjects with only rod function reveals that these individuals unexpectedly retain substantial vision in daylight. We sought to understand this discrepancy by characterizing the sensitivity of rod photoresponses following exposure to bright bleaching light. Measurements of the rod outer segment photocurrent in transgenic mice, which have only rod function, revealed the well-studied reduction in the sensitivity of rod photoresponses following pigment bleaching. However, membrane voltage measurements showed that the desensitization of the photovoltage was considerably less than that of the outer segment photocurrent following equivalent pigment bleaching. This discrepancy was largely eliminated during the blockade of cation channels due to the internal dialysis of Cs+ , which increased the bleach-induced desensitization of the photovoltage and slowed its temporal characteristics. Thus, sensitization of the photovoltage by rod inner segment conductances appears to extend the operating range of rod phototransduction following pigment bleaching.

Exchange of Cone for Rod Phosphodiesterase 6 Catalytic Subunits in Rod Photoreceptors Mimics in Part Features of Light Adaptation.

Despite the expression of homologous phototransduction components, the molecular basis for differences in light-evoked responses between rod and cone photoreceptors remains unclear. We examined the role of cGMP phosphodiesterase (PDE6) in this difference by expressing cone PDE6 (PDE6C) in rd1/rd1 rods lacking rod PDE6 (PDE6AB) using transgenic mice. The expression of PDE6C rescues retinal degeneration observed in rd1/rd1 rods. Double-transgenic rods (PDE6C++) were compared with rd1/+ rods based on similar PDE6 expression. PDE6C increased the basal PDE activity and speeded the rate-limiting step for phototransduction deactivation, causing rod photoresponses to appear light adapted, with reduced dark current and sensitivity and faster response kinetics. When PDE6C++ and rd1/+ rods were exposed to similar background light, rd1/+ rods displayed greater desensitization. These results indicate an increased spontaneous activity and faster deactivation of PDE6C compared with PDE6AB in darkness, but that background light increases steady PDE6C activity to a lesser extent. In addition to accelerating the recovery of the photoresponse, faster PDE6C deactivation may blunt the rise in background-induced steady PDE6C activity. Therefore, higher basal PDE6C activity and faster deactivation together partially account for faster and less sensitive cone photoresponses in darkness, whereas a reduced rise of steady PDE6C activity in background light may allow cones to avoid saturation. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: Cones are the primary photoreceptors responsible for most of our visual experience. Cone light responses are less sensitive and display speeded responses compared with rods. Despite the fact that rods and cones use a G-protein signaling cascade with similar organization, the mechanistic basis for these differences remains unclear. Here, we examined the role of distinct isoforms of PDE6, the effector enzyme in phototransduction, in these differences. We developed a transgenic mouse model that expresses cone PDE6 in rods and show that the cone PDE6 isoform is partially responsible for the difference in sensitivity and response kinetics between rods and cones.

Why are rods more sensitive than cones?

One hundred and fifty years ago Max Schultze first proposed the duplex theory of vision, that vertebrate eyes have two types of photoreceptor cells with differing sensitivity: rods for dim light and cones for bright light and colour detection. We now know that this division is fundamental not only to the photoreceptors themselves but to the whole of retinal and visual processing. But why are rods more sensitive, and how did the duplex retina first evolve? Cells resembling cones are very old, first appearing among cnidarians; the emergence of rods was a key step in the evolution of the vertebrate eye. Many transduction proteins have different isoforms in rods and cones, and others are expressed at different levels. Moreover rods and cones have a different anatomy, with only rods containing membranous discs enclosed by the plasma membrane. These differences must be responsible for the difference in absolute sensitivity, but which are essential? Recent research particularly expressing cone proteins in rods or changing the level of expression seem to show that many of the molecular differences in the activation and decay of the response may have each made a small contribution as evolution proceeded stepwise with incremental increases in sensitivity. Rod outer-segment discs were not essential and developed after single-photon detection. These experiments collectively provide a new understanding of the two kinds of photoreceptors and help to explain how gene duplication and the formation of rod-specific proteins produced the duplex retina, which has remained remarkably constant in physiology from amphibians to man.

Detection of single photons by toad and mouse rods.

Amphibian and mammalian rods can both detect single photons of light even though they differ greatly in physical dimensions, mammalian rods being much smaller in diameter than amphibian rods. To understand the changes in physiology and biochemistry required by such large differences in outer segment geometry, we developed a computational approach, taking into account the spatial organization of the outer segment divided into compartments, together with molecular dynamics simulations of the signaling cascade. We generated simulations of the single-photon response together with intrinsic background fluctuations in toad and mouse rods. Combining this computational approach with electrophysiological data from mouse rods, we determined key biochemical parameters. On average around one phosphodiesterase (PDE) molecule is spontaneously active per mouse compartment, similar to the value for toad, which is unexpected due to the much smaller diameter in mouse. A larger number of spontaneously active PDEs decreases dark noise, thereby improving detection of single photons; it also increases cGMP turnover, which accelerates the decay of the light response. These constraints explain the higher PDE density in mammalian compared with amphibian rods that compensates for the much smaller diameter of mammalian disks. We further find that the rate of cGMP hydrolysis by light-activated PDE is diffusion limited, which is not the case for spontaneously activated PDE. As a consequence, in the small outer segment of a mouse rod only a few activated PDEs are sufficient to generate a signal that overcomes noise, which permits a shorter lifetime of activated rhodopsin and greater temporal resolution.

Transducin translocation contributes to rod survival and enhances synaptic transmission from rods to rod bipolar cells.

In rod photoreceptors, several phototransduction components display light-dependent translocation between cellular compartments. Notably, the G protein transducin translocates from rod outer segments to inner segments/spherules in bright light, but the functional consequences of translocation remain unclear. We generated transgenic mice where light-induced transducin translocation is impaired. These mice exhibited slow photoreceptor degeneration, which was prevented if they were dark-reared. Physiological recordings showed that control and transgenic rods and rod bipolar cells displayed similar sensitivity in darkness. After bright light exposure, control rods were more strongly desensitized than transgenic rods. However, in rod bipolar cells, this effect was reversed; transgenic rod bipolar cells were more strongly desensitized than control. This sensitivity reversal indicates that transducin translocation in rods enhances signaling to rod bipolar cells. The enhancement could not be explained by modulation of inner segment conductances or the voltage sensitivity of the synaptic Ca(2+) current, suggesting interactions of transducin with the synaptic machinery.

Regulators of G protein signaling RGS7 and RGS11 determine the onset of the light response in ON bipolar neurons.

The time course of signaling via heterotrimeric G proteins is controlled through their activation by G-protein coupled receptors and deactivation through the action of GTPase accelerating proteins (GAPs). Here we identify RGS7 and RGS11 as the key GAPs in the mGluR6 pathway of retinal rod ON bipolar cells that set the sensitivity and time course of light-evoked responses. We showed using electroretinography and single cell recordings that the elimination of RGS7 did not influence dark-adapted light-evoked responses, but the concurrent elimination of RGS11 severely reduced their magnitude and dramatically slowed the onset of the response. In RGS7/RGS11 double-knockout mice, light-evoked responses in rod ON bipolar cells were only observed during persistent activation of rod photoreceptors that saturate rods. These observations are consistent with persistently high G-protein activity in rod ON bipolar cell dendrites caused by the absence of the dominant GAP, biasing TRPM1 channels to the closed state.

Functional comparison of rod and cone Gα(t) on the regulation of light sensitivity.

The signaling cascades mediated by G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) exhibit a wide spectrum of spatial and temporal response properties to fulfill diverse physiological demands. However, the mechanisms that shape the signaling response of the GPCR are not well understood. In this study, we replaced cone transducin α (cTα) for rod transducin α (rTα) in rod photoreceptors of transgenic mice, which also express S opsin, to evaluate the role of Gα subtype on signal amplification from different GPCRs in the same cell; such analysis may explain functional differences between retinal rod and cone photoreceptors. We showed that ectopically expressed cTα 1) forms a heterotrimeric complex with rod Gß(1)γ(1), 2) substitutes equally for rTα in generating photoresponses initiated by either rhodopsin or S-cone opsin, and 3) exhibited similar light-activated translocation as endogenous rTα in rods and endogenous cTα in cones. Thus, rTα and cTα appear functionally interchangeable. Interestingly, light sensitivity appeared to correlate with the concentration of cTα when expression is reduced below 35% of normal. However, quantification of endogenous cTα concentration in cones showed a higher level to rTα in rods. Thus, reduced sensitivity in cones cannot be explained by reduced coupling efficiency between the GPCR and G protein or a lower concentration of G protein in cones versus rods.

Genetic manipulation of rod-cone differences in mouse retina.

Though rod and cone photoreceptors use similar phototransduction mechanisms, previous model calculations have indicated that the most important differences in their light responses are likely to be differences in amplification of the G-protein cascade, different decay rates of phosphodiesterase (PDE) and pigment phosphorylation, and different rates of turnover of cGMP in darkness. To test this hypothesis, we constructed TrUx;GapOx rods by crossing mice with decreased transduction gain from decreased transducin expression, with mice displaying an increased rate of PDE decay from increased expression of GTPase-activating proteins (GAPs). These two manipulations brought the sensitivity of TrUx;GapOx rods to within a factor of 2 of WT cone sensitivity, after correcting for outer-segment dimensions. These alterations did not, however, change photoreceptor adaptation: rods continued to show increment saturation though at a higher background intensity. These experiments confirm model calculations that rod responses can mimic some (though not all) of the features of cone responses after only a few changes in the properties of transduction proteins.

RDH12 allows cone photoreceptors to regenerate opsin visual pigments from a chromophore precursor to escape competition with rods.

Capture of a photon by an opsin visual pigment isomerizes its 11-cis-retinaldehyde (11cRAL) chromophore to all-trans-retinaldehyde (atRAL), which subsequently dissociates. To restore light sensitivity, the unliganded apo-opsin combines with another 11cRAL to make a new visual pigment. Two enzyme pathways supply chromophore to photoreceptors. The canonical visual cycle in retinal pigment epithelial cells supplies 11cRAL at low rates. The photic visual cycle in Müller cells supplies cones with 11-cis-retinol (11cROL) chromophore precursor at high rates. Although rods can only use 11cRAL to regenerate rhodopsin, cones can use 11cRAL or 11cROL to regenerate cone visual pigments. We performed a screen in zebrafish retinas and identified ZCRDH as a candidate for the enzyme that converts 11cROL to 11cRAL in cone inner segments. Retinoid analysis of eyes from Zcrdh-mutant zebrafish showed reduced 11cRAL and increased 11cROL levels, suggesting impaired conversion of 11cROL to 11cRAL. By microspectrophotometry, isolated Zcrdh-mutant cones lost the capacity to regenerate visual pigments from 11cROL. ZCRDH therefore possesses all predicted properties of the cone 11cROL dehydrogenase. The human protein most similar to ZCRDH is RDH12. By immunocytochemistry, ZCRDH was abundantly present in cone inner segments, similar to the reported distribution of RDH12. Finally, RDH12 was the only mammalian candidate protein to exhibit 11cROL-oxidase catalytic activity. These observations suggest that RDH12 in mammals is the functional ortholog of ZCRDH, which allows cones, but not rods, to regenerate visual pigments from 11cROL provided by Müller cells. This capacity permits cones to escape competition from rods for visual chromophore in daylight-exposed retinas.

Investigation of the functional impact of CHED- and FECD4-associated SLC4A11 mutations in human corneal endothelial cells.

Mutations in the solute linked carrier family 4 member 11 (SLC4A11) gene are associated with congenital hereditary endothelial dystrophy (CHED) and Fuchs corneal endothelial dystrophy type 4 (FECD4), both characterized by corneal endothelial cell (CEnC) dysfunction and/or cell loss leading to corneal edema and visual impairment. In this study, we characterize the impact of CHED-/FECD4-associated SLC4A11 mutations on CEnC function and SLC4A11 protein localization by generating and comparing human CEnC (hCEnC) lines expressing wild type SLC4A11 (SLC4A11WT) or mutant SLC4A11 harboring CHED-/FECD4-associated SLC4A11 mutations (SLC4A11MU). SLC4A11WT and SLC4A11MU hCEnC lines were generated to express either SLC4A11 variant 2 (V2WT and V2MU) or variant 3 (V3WT and V3MU), the two major variants expressed in ex vivo hCEnC. Functional assays were performed to assess cell barrier, proliferation, viability, migration, and NH3-induced membrane conductance. We demonstrate SLC4A11-/- and SLC4A11MU hCEnC lines exhibited increased migration rates, altered proliferation and decreased cell viability compared to SLC4A11WT hCEnC. Additionally, SLC4A11-/- hCEnC demonstrated decreased cell-substrate adhesion and membrane capacitances compared to SLC4A11WT hCEnC. Induction with 10mM NH4Cl led SLC4A11WT hCEnC to depolarize; conversely, SLC4A11-/- hCEnC hyperpolarized and the majority of SLC4A11MU hCEnC either hyperpolarized or had minimal membrane potential changes following NH4Cl induction. Immunostaining of primary hCEnC and SLC4A11WT hCEnC lines for SLC4A11 demonstrated predominately plasma membrane staining with poor or partial colocalization with mitochondrial marker COX4 within a subset of punctate subcellular structures. Overall, our findings suggest CHED-associated SLC4A11 mutations likely lead to hCEnC dysfunction, and ultimately CHED, by interfering with cell migration, proliferation, viability, membrane conductance, barrier function, and/or cell surface localization of the SLC4A11 protein in hCEnC. Additionally, based on their similar subcellular localization and exhibiting similar cell functional profiles, protein isoforms encoded by SLC4A11 variant 2 and variant 3 likely have highly overlapping functional roles in hCEnC.

Visual threshold is set by linear and nonlinear mechanisms in the retina that mitigate noise: how neural circuits in the retina improve the signal-to-noise ratio of the single-photon response.

In sensory biology, a major outstanding question is how sensory receptor cells minimize noise while maximizing signal to set the detection threshold. This optimization could be problematic because the origin of both the signals and the limiting noise in most sensory systems is believed to lie in stimulus transduction. Signal processing in receptor cells can improve the signal-to-noise ratio. However, neural circuits can further optimize the detection threshold by pooling signals from sensory receptor cells and processing them using a combination of linear and nonlinear filtering mechanisms. In the visual system, noise limiting light detection has been assumed to arise from stimulus transduction in rod photoreceptors. In this context, the evolutionary optimization of the signal-to-noise ratio in the retina has proven critical in allowing visual sensitivity to approach the limits set by the quantal nature of light. Here, we discuss how noise in the mammalian retina is mitigated to allow for highly sensitive night vision.

Flow of energy in the outer retina in darkness and in light.

Structural features of neurons create challenges for effective production and distribution of essential metabolic energy. We investigated how metabolic energy is distributed between cellular compartments in photoreceptors. In avascular retinas, aerobic production of energy occurs only in mitochondria that are located centrally within the photoreceptor. Our findings indicate that metabolic energy flows from these central mitochondria as phosphocreatine toward the photoreceptor's synaptic terminal in darkness. In light, it flows in the opposite direction as ATP toward the outer segment. Consistent with this model, inhibition of creatine kinase in avascular retinas blocks synaptic transmission without influencing outer segment activity. Our findings also reveal how vascularization of neuronal tissue can influence the strategies neurons use for energy management. In vascularized retinas, mitochondria in the synaptic terminals of photoreceptors make neurotransmission less dependent on creatine kinase. Thus, vasculature of the tissue and the intracellular distribution of mitochondria can play key roles in setting the strategy for energy distribution in neurons.